Edward Lloyd's coffeehouse Concepts

Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol

by Iain Gately · 30 Jun 2008 · 686pp · 201,972 words

and as unfruitful, as the Deserts of Africk.” Despite the grave threat posed by coffee to the sex lives of English men and women, new coffeehouses kept appearing. From 1663 onward, the sale of coffee was regulated for the first time, alongside that of other new beverages, viz., tea, chocolate, and

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sherbet, and coffeehouses were licensed in a similar manner to alehouses. By modern standards the Java that they served was filthy stuff. Its active ingredient had spent months

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take the next fit seat that he can find: Nor need any, if Finer Persons come, Rise up for to assigne to them his Room. Coffeehouses tended to specialize in different sorts of clientele. While some drew clergymen, others attracted scientists, artists, or lawyers. Each was like a little court, where

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,” as coffee cost a penny a cup 18 and newspapers and debate came free of charge. Groups of businessmen with similar interests gathered at specific coffeehouses to transact their affairs. Indeed, some such in the City of London quickly became the foci of both the domestic capital markets and international trade

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. From 1697 onward, most of the business of the London Stocks Exchange was carried out in a pair of coffeehouses—Jonathan’s and Garraway’s. London’s shipowners, meanwhile, met at Lloyd’s Coffee House, whose proprietor published a daily paper listing news of interest to the shipping world, held auctions of prize

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to play the goodfellows [with] this wakeful and civil drink.” 12 RUM Sugar and slave trading were among the principal topics of conversation at Edward Lloyd’s Coffee House in London. Europeans had been found to have an insatiable appetite for the former substance, whose manufacture relied upon cheap labor supplied by the latter

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Gilbert had 218 gallons of rum, 319 of wine, and 982 of cider in his Boston tavern; and in 1725, Thomas Selby of the Crown Coffee House had nearly 700 gallons of rum and more than 6,000 gallons of wine to hand, which equated to almost a half gallon of wine

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. 139 “a simple innocent thing”: The Social Life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse, Brian Cowan, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2005, p. 95. 140 “thick as puddle water”: “A Character of Coffee and Coffee Houses” 1661, London, electronic edition prepared and edited by Emily Clark. 140 “First, Gentry, Tradesmen, all

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, David Lewis, Dioclesian Lewis and Clark expedition Lexington Gazette Liberty Ale Liberty Bowl Lightner, Candy Lincoln, Abraham Lindisfame Little Ice Age Livesey, Joseph Lloyd’s Coffee House Locke, John London, England London, Jack London Company of Distillers London Stock Exchange Longfellow, Henry Longworth, Nicholas Los Angeles, California Los ías de Muertos Lost

How the City Really Works: The Definitive Guide to Money and Investing in London's Square Mile

by Alexander Davidson · 1 Apr 2008 · 368pp · 32,950 words

). Lloyd’s is a specialist insurance market, and business comes into it from more than 200 countries and territories worldwide. It started as Edward Lloyd’s Coffee House, a 17th-century coffee house where timely shipping news was made available and marine insurance could be obtained. Shipping and insurance were closely connected, and ship owners would

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percentage of risk they would bear in return for a pro rata cut of the premium. In 1769, the shipping insurance community moved to another coffee house, separating itself from other business, and kept the Lloyd’s name. In _____________________________ INSURANCE: LLOYD’S OF LONDON 247  1811, Lloyd’s gained a constitution, regulating

Other People's Money: Masters of the Universe or Servants of the People?

by John Kay · 2 Sep 2015 · 478pp · 126,416 words

turned insurance company boss, offered an entertaining account of the development of the global insurance market in the eighteenth century. He explained how, in Edward Lloyd’s coffee house in London, leisured English gentlemen gathered to gamble on the fate of ships at sea. The value of these positions ebbed and flowed with the

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– designed by Richard Rogers and perhaps the most striking of all City of London office buildings – is barely a hundred yards from the place where Edward Lloyd’s customers first smelt the coffee. And Lloyd’s is still the principal global location for marine insurance. In the twentieth century both Lloyd’s

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losses. Munich Re and Swiss Re were financial behemoths, pooling risks globally and maintaining large capital reserves to meet future losses. At Lloyd’s the coffee-house tradition continued with business conducted in ‘the Room’. The Lutine Bell at its centre reflected the maritime history. (The bell had been salvaged from a

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families; because uncontrolled gambling will increase society’s exposure to risk. And so it is with wagering in financial markets. The occupants of Lloyd’s coffee house did not just gamble on tides and ships. In a manner that anticipated the future extension of the scope of derivatives securities they would gamble

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its interpretation for transactions based on differences in preferences and capabilities. Policymakers thought traders were in an alpine village when they were in Lloyd’s coffee house. Credit-scoring and carefully formulated accounting rules are valuable tools for financial intermediaries. The ability to compile, access and analyse large databases can, if properly

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G8 and G20 economic summits 220 Galbraith, J.K. 127, 201 Galton, Francis xi gambling 130–31, 289 close regulation of 71, 72 Lloyd’s coffee house 71–2 lottery 65, 66, 68, 72 Gates, Bill 174, 268 Gaussian copula 22 GEC 48, 51 GEICO 107 Geithner, Timothy 57–8, 73, 75

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92 supplying or reducing 244 ticket touts 94–5 Litton Industries 45 Lloyd, Edward 61, 62 Lloyds Bank 24, 38, 138, 139, 268 Lloyd’s coffee house, London 61, 62, 71, 87, 258 Lloyd’s of London and Equitas 107 Lloyd’s building 62 Lutine Bell 62 ‘names’ 62, 63, 100 ‘the

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, 103, 131, 255 Volcker, Paul 150, 181 Volcker Rule 194 voluntary agencies 258 W wagers and credit default swaps 119 defined 61 at Lloyd’s coffee house 71–2 lottery tickets 65 Wall Street, New York 1, 16, 312n2 careers in 15 rivalry with London 13 staffing of 217 Wall Street Crash

I Never Knew That About London

by Christopher Winn · 3 Oct 2007 · 395pp · 94,764 words

of rest of the building. Lloyd’s of London is the world’s leading insurance market. It all began in 1688 in a coffee-house in Tower Street, run by Edward Lloyd and frequented by sailors, merchants and shipowners who would exchange information about their ships and cargoes and arrange insurance. Individuals would each

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a premium and write their names on the policy, one under the other. Hence they were known as ‘underwriters’. A few years later, around 1696, Edward Lloyd began to publish a news sheet containing all the shipping information he had gathered. Called Lloyd’s News, this was the forerunner of Lloyd’s

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’s Hospital. He made much of his fortune by selling out of South Sea Stock before it collapsed in the South Sea Bubble of 1720. Coffee-Houses The First Information Superhighway BETWEEN CORNHILL AND Lombard Street there is a maze of narrow passageways and alleys created so that messengers could flit to

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fro between all the different businesses that were based around here. And they were also home in the 17th and 18th centuries to dozens of coffee-houses and taverns where merchants, bankers and traders would meet to exchange news and ideas. This area was the original ‘information superhighway’. Many of London’s

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and the world’s great institutions originated in the coffee-houses of these alleyways: institutions such as Lloyd’s of London, the Baltic Exchange and the Stock Exchange. Today the alleys are dark, featureless and rather

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the white tile walls tell something of the momentous events and ideas that went out from here to challenge and change the world. THE FIRST COFFEE-HOUSE IN LONDON was PASQUA ROSEE’S, opened in 1652 by Christopher Bowman and his Levantine partner Pasqua Rosee in St Michael’s Alley at the

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east end of Cornhill. It was burned down in the Great Fire and replaced by the Jamaica Coffee-House, now the Jamaica Wine House. In Castle Court is the GEORGE AND VULTURE, several times rebuilt on the site of a tavern first recorded here

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century the George and Vulture was a favourite haunt of the notorious Hellfire Club, led by Sir Francis Dashwood. In COWPER’S COURT the JERUSALEM COFFEE-HOUSE for a while rivalled Lloyd’s as a meeting place for those in the business of shipping. Employees from the East India Company, whose headquarters

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were nearby in Leadenhall Street, met here so often that it became known as the Jerusalem and East India coffee-house. The writer Charles Lamb (1775–1834), the philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill (1806–73) and the novelist Thomas Love Peacock (1785–1866) all worked

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building now stands. CHANGE ALLEY, which took its original name, Exchange Alley, from its position close to the Royal Exchange, was home to GARRAWAY’S coffee-house, opened in 1669 by THOMAS GARRAWAY, THE FIRST MAN TO IMPORT TEA INTO BRITAIN. A few years later JONATHAN’S

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COFFEE-HOUSE opened up in Change Alley and became a favourite meeting-place for the stock dealers who had been expelled from the Royal Exchange for rowdiness.

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abolished slavery throughout the British Empire. William Wilberforce declared his inspiration to be the sermons John Newton gave from the pulpit of St Mary Woolnoth. Edward Lloyd, whose coffee-house in Lombard Street was the origin of Lloyd’s of London insurance market, was buried here in 1713. In the west gallery is a

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Mills and Martin’s banks have all had their head offices in Lombard Street, which is still regarded as the banking centre of Britain. Edward Lloyd moved his coffee-house here from Tower Street in 1692. The poet ALEXANDER POPE was born in Plough Court, off Lombard Street, in 1688. 30 ST MARY AXE

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descended by marriage to the Berry and Rudd families who still own and operate it today. In the 18th century the store supplied the fashionable coffee-houses that were springing up in the area and started a tradition of weighing customers on giant coffee scales. They have records of the weights of

City: A Guidebook for the Urban Age

by P. D. Smith · 19 Jun 2012

; burned down 1818) was the first of its kind in New York, with seventy-three rooms on five floors. In Boston, the seven-storey Exchange Coffee House (1806–9, Asher Benjamin), which also housed the city’s merchant exchange, had a striking architectural feature which would become common in later hotels, including

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domed rotunda with balconies running around the inside. With its seventy-foot dining room and grand ballroom reached by a splendid curving staircase, the Exchange Coffee House was clearly a hotel and not an inn. Also in Boston, Tremont House (1827–30; demolished 1894), designed by the pioneering hotel architect Isaiah Rogers

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, Thailand. 5 Getting Around Walking On an autumn afternoon in London during the 1830s, a man sat alone in the large bow window of a coffee house, idly reading a newspaper and smoking a cigar. Bored with the printed news, he glanced first at the other occupants of the room and then

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out of the window. The coffee house was on one of London’s busiest streets. People had been hurrying past all afternoon and now, as the working day drew to a close

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the Duc d’Orléans had turned the gardens and arcades of the neo-classical Palais Royal into a public space full of shops, restaurants and coffee houses. It became popular both for shopping and as a promenade, a dynamic and fashionable space, one of those essentially urban focal points that emerge almost

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tunnels. One flusher said: ‘We couldn’t even access the sewer as it was blocked by a four-foot wall of solid fat.’35 Coffee Houses The coffee house has been part of city life in Western Europe for some 350 years. Coffee originated in Ethiopia, and it was first tasted by Europeans in

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of) in little China dishes, as hot as they can suffer it: blacke as soote, and tasting not much unlike it.’34 Constantinople’s first coffee house dated from 1554 and along with others quickly became a central part of Turkish Ottoman society, places where men gathered to talk, to listen to

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music and to play chess. Christendom’s first coffee house opened in London in about 1652. Located in St Michael’s Alley, just off Cornhill, near the Royal Exchange, it was little more than a

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Rosee, from the city of Smyrna in the Ottoman Empire. It proved such a success with the merchants and traders of the area that other coffee houses soon opened. By the 1670s, Paris had its first café, as did Venice by 1683, and Vienna a couple of years later. At the beginning

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of the eighteenth century, London had at least five hundred coffee houses. As in Constantinople, coffee houses became important spaces for socialising. Class distinctions were left in the street, as in a coffee house you took the first free seat (there were no reservations). Coffee houses were like today’s Facebook or Twitter: they were places to

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or news, places for networking and debate. Located as many of them were in the commercial heart of London, coffee houses played an important role as places where financial information was exchanged. Edward Lloyd’s coffee house in Lombard Street became the centre of the London shipping world after its owner began collecting and publishing details

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to this day, and out of this informal gathering of shipowners and insurers Lloyd’s of London insurance market was born. Café Dobner, a Viennese coffee house popular with writers and artists, c. 1900. By 1900, continental cities such as Budapest had several hundred cafés. Cafés were at the heart of the

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as Traveler: George Sandys’s Relation of a Journey begun An. Dom. 1610 (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1986), 18, cited from Markman Ellis, The Coffee House: A Cultural History (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004), 8. 35. Laura Roberts, ‘Fat cleared from London sewers will fill nine double-decker buses’, Daily Telegraph (13

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: Penguin, 1975) Cruickshank, Dan, The Secret History of Georgian London: How the Wages of Sin Shaped the Capital (London: Random House, 2009) Ellis, Markman, The Coffee House: A Cultural History (London: Weidenfield & Nicolson, 2004) Girouard, Mark, Cities and People: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985) Hall, Peter

The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World

by Niall Ferguson · 13 Nov 2007 · 471pp · 124,585 words

Fourteen years later Nicholas Barbon established the first fire insurance company. At around the same time, a specialized marine insurance market began to coalesce in Edward Lloyd’s coffee house in London’s Tower Street (later in Lombard Street). Between the 1730s and the 1760s, the practice of exchanging information at Lloyd’s became

Empty Vessel: The Story of the Global Economy in One Barge

by Ian Kumekawa · 6 May 2025 · 422pp · 112,638 words

on—in the seventeenth century—spreading around the risk of such ventures happened fairly informally. In London, investors, merchants, and sailors would meet at Edward Lloyd’s Coffee House in the heart of what is now the city’s financial district to swap news, secure funding, and negotiate insurance.[55] In 1760, a group

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Norske Veritas in LiG, F2A:375. BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 54 Charles Ernest Fayle, A History of Lloyd’s from the Founding of Lloyd’s Coffee House to the Present Day (London: Macmillan, 1928). BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 55 Frederick Martin, The History of Lloyd’s and of Marine Insurance in Great

The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry From Crop to the Last Drop

by Gregory Dicum and Nina Luttinger · 1 Jan 1999 · 230pp · 62,294 words

Cairo to the human misery of eighteenth-century Dutch colonial slavery, from the booming growth of Brazil in the nineteenth century to the modern-day coffeehouse imperialism of Starbucks. Much more than the mere chemicals that compose it, coffee is a bit of history itself. And we consume it zealously.

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many coffee industry people who have been so helpful in providing us with information and opinions. 1 A Brief History of Coffee The history of coffeehouses, ere the invention of clubs, was that of the manners, the morals, and the politics of a people. —ISAAC D’ISRAELI, Curiosities of Literature (

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spreads to Mecca and Medina 1517 Sultan Selim I introduces coffee to Constantinople after con quering Egypt 1554 The first coffeehouses open in Constantinople 1570–80 Religious authorities in Constantinople order coffee houses to close 1600 Coffee is brought into southern India by a Muslim pilgrim named Baba Budan 1616 Coffee is brought

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from Mocha to Holland 1645 The first coffeehouse opens in Venice 1650 The first coffeehouse opens in England, at Oxford 1658 The Dutch

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published in London 1675 King Charles II orders the closing of all London coffee houses, calling them “places of sedition” 1679 The physicians of Marseilles attempt to discredit coffee by claiming it is harmful to health 1679 The first coffeehouse in Germany opens, in Hamburg 1689 The first enduring Parisian café, Café de

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the drink had become so popular that drinkers in Constantinople, Cairo, and Mecca formed special areas in which to drink it: the world’s first coffeehouses. Such establishments became centers for playing chess and other games, discussing the news of the day, singing, dancing, making music, and, of course, drinking

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the clock in the afternoon.7 Public knowledge of coffee’s pharmacological qualities greatly facilitated acceptance of the new drink and made the frequenting of coffeehouses seem almost virtuous in contrast to their alternative, taverns. To Puritans of the time, coffee was widely viewed as an answer to the rather

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two in the evening than at a coffee-house? . . . it is the sanctuary of health, the nursery of temperance, the delight of frugality, and academy of civility, the free-school of ingenuity!11 Typically situated on the second floor of a building, the first English coffeehouses had an atmosphere not so very different

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of a new humanism—and only at these foci could an author come into contact with the thought of his generation.”13 Not surprisingly, then, coffeehouses evolved as early prototypes for the first social clubs and other social institutions created by the emerging Third Estate for their own organization and expression

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to social club:The evolution of the modern club has been so simple that it can be traced with great ease. First the tavern or coffeehouse, where a certain number of people met on special evenings for purposes of social conversation, and incidentally consumed a good deal of liquid refreshment;

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the members themselves ...14 Lloyd’s of London also evolved from a coffeehouse, one that primarily served seafarers and merchants. In his late-seventeenth-century coffeehouse, Edward Lloyd established a list detailing ships’ cargo and their schedules. Underwriters came to his coffeehouse to sell shipping insurance and merchants came to keep track of the ships

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ladies, seated on cushions, turned the heads of the Parisian dames. This elegant introduction made the exotic beverage a subject of conversation.15 Lloyd’s Coffeehouse in the seventeenth century. Patrons catch up on the latest shipping news while others peddle insurance. Writing Le bourgeois gentilhomme in 1670, Molière satirized the

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drinkers, not to mention a powerful kick. Although several small coffee establishments had opened in Paris earlier, Café de Procope was France’s first enduring coffeehouse. Originally from Italy, Procopio Cultelli opened Café de Procope in 1689, directly opposite the recently established Comédie Française in Paris. The location proved successful;

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but under very different circumstances. Although the Viennese had been introduced to the drink about two decades earlier, the city did not open its first coffeehouse until 1683, following the procurement of a rather unexpected coffee supply. In that year, when the Turks were defeated in battle outside of Vienna, they

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beans might be animal feed, a Pole named Kolshitsky was familiar with them from his travels to the Middle East and opened Vienna’s first coffeehouse. In fact, regardless of how coffee entered into use in a given country—as medicine, as vogue trend, as social happening, as stimulating drug,

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led the mob that, two days later, brought down the Bastille. It was in a Boston coffeehouse in 1773 that American dissidents planned the Boston Tea Party. And it was in a New York coffee-house at the dawn of the American Revolution that citizens convened a mass meeting in response to the

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faced similar prejudices and prohibitions, as religious intolerance and civil authorities occasionally intervened to suppress its popularity, though only temporarily. Ironically, civil authorities often issued coffeehouse prohibitions claiming that they bred riotous mobs, when in fact the bans themselves created widespread public unrest. Strong public protests following any ban on coffee

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or coffeehouses always eventually won out; coffee was here to stay. The early rise of coffee consumption in Europe in some ways resembled the tortuous path to

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also briefly threatened coffee’s future in Christendom and spawned its own semimythical appropriation of the bean. A legend holds that long before the first coffeehouse had opened in Italy in 1645 (and according to many accounts, several years before coffee had even been widely available in Italy) a group

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elixir could not possibly be the work of Satan, opted instead to baptize it and make it a Christian drink. The almost instant popularity of coffeehouses also naturally incited some antipathy from taverners, who saw a noticeable decline in their business. Not surprisingly, many of the early broadsides against coffee were

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Majesty’s Government, and to the Disturbance of the Peace and Quiet of the Realm; his Majesty hath thought fit and necessary, that the said Coffeehouses be (for the future) Put down, and suppressed . . .”20 Many protested against the decree, including the coffee dealers, who pointed out to the king

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that he himself earned good revenues from the trade. Within a few days the Crown gave up and reinstated coffeehouses, but with an additional tax and the condition that proprietors pledge not to sell pamphlets, books, or leaflets or allow speeches on their premises.

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not until a few years later that a group of apothecaries and other merchants brought the first commercial shipment in from Egypt. By the 1670s coffeehouses had become quite common in the port city, and coffee drinking had risen dramatically. The physicians, who had earlier prescribed the drink as a

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tendency of the public to ignore even the direst of medical warnings, especially when it comes to psychoactive drugs, people continued to drink coffee in coffeehouses and in the home. In Germany, travelers such as Rauwolf had described coffee from journeys in the Middle East dating back to the late 1500s

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his collegium musicum, an ensemble of musicians and professors who met regularly and held public performances every Friday evening at Zimmermann’s, a famous Leipzig coffeehouse. In Prussia and Hanover coffee eventually met with opposition for economic reasons. Noting the huge amounts of money flowing to foreign coffee merchants, Frederick the

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was built and opened by John Hutchins in 1696, on a lot he bought on Broadway near the Trinity churchyard. The bottom floor of the coffeehouse was used for eating and coffee drinking, with booths separated by green curtains, while the second floor was used for meetings of merchants, colonial magistrates

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Wall and Water streets (near the site of today’s National Coffee Association headquarters). This coffeehouse became an important center for meetings and commerce; the Chamber of Commerce conducted sessions in the coffeehouse’s long room, and, like Edward Lloyd, the proprietor eventually kept a marine list, announcing the names of vessels arriving and

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departing from the port. The proprietor also organized a register of citizens that may have been the first city directory. Before it was destroyed in a fire in 1804, Merchant’s Coffeehouse

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Act in 1765, angry colonists had protested “no taxation without representation” and both the Green Dragon, one of the most famous early Boston coffeehouses, and Merchant’s Coffeehouse in New York became the scenes for planning boycotts of imported English goods. By 1770 increasing political tension about the issue caused the English

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the time. Starbucks imperialism is already making inroads into Europe and Asia, spreading its own particular definition of good coffee, and homogenizing the once diverse coffeehouse experience. Just as scientific innovation played a critical role in making the transition from energy bar to hot breakfast beverage many hundreds of years ago

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ongoing evolution of modern coffee consumption has become a blizzard of trade associations, branding and advertising, scientific research, marketplace choice, socially responsible coffees, and trendy coffeehouse chains. Quite an empire, built on a humble bush. 2 Coffee’s Odyssey from Crop to Cup The market price of a food product simply

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been implicated in a number of health problems. Now located in New York City, in a building near the site of the old Merchant’s Coffeehouse, the NCA publishes the annual National Coffee Drinking Trends Report and holds an annual convention at which the state of the nation’s industrial coffee

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was considered a luxury and remained available only where population densities made it feasible. Until the late nineteenth century, consumers usually drank their coffee in coffeehouses or roasted their own. Coffee was drunk widely, but its flavor was inconsistent, and it was often adulterated. As was the case for most

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successful (or ridiculous) products such as Nestlé/Coca-Cola’s Nescafé Ice Java Iced Coffee Syrup and the inelegantly named—and short-lived—Maxwell House Coffeehouse Iced Coffees. The majors have also introduced their own specialty coffee brands, such as Kraft’s Gevalia and Chock full o’ Nuts’ cafés (actually

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that had almost disappeared under the postwar regime of highly regimented schedules, commuter life, and television. This had clearly been the role of the old coffeehouses in Europe and had been present in America in the form of neighborhood gathering places such as bars and coffee shops. Disintegration of these spaces

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from the dominant corporate culture of the American Century reinforces their association further, and makes any overt old-line intrusions into the industry—Maxwell House Coffeehouse Roast, Folgers French Roast—ring false by definition. Starbucks and the rest of the specialty coffee industry have developed a love-hate relationship for this

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big boys: PepsiCo, Anheuser-Busch, United Airlines, Marriott, Hewlett-Packard, and Barnes & Noble. It has, in many ways, become the antithesis of the independent specialty coffeehouse, providing a corporatized, homogenized retail experience with a consistent but not outstanding product. In fact, coffee itself is becoming less and less important to what

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specialty coffees. It is thanks to Starbucks that espresso, lattes, and the like are familiar drinks outside Italy. Many of its cafés are the only coffeehouses in the suburban malls that comprise the Third Places in America’s fastest-growing regions—places where espresso might still be unknown were it not

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Steve Bradshaw, Cafe Society: Bohemian Life from Swift to Bob Dylan (London: Wiedenfeld and Nicolson, 1978), 10. 12 Edward Forbes Robinson, The Early History of Coffee Houses in England (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trüber & Co, Ltd., 1893), 109. 13 Jacob, Coffee, 97. 14 Ralph Nevill, London Clubs: Their History and Treasures (London

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, 1977), 30. 16 Ukers, All About Coffee, 15. 17 A Cup of Coffee: or, Coffee in Its Colours, 1663. Quoted in Robinson, Early History of Coffee Houses in England, 112. 18 The Women’s Petition Against Coffee, London, 1674. 19 The Men’s Answer to the Women’s Petition Against Coffee, London

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six voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier ..., qu’il a fait en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes . . . (Paris, 1676). Quoted in Ulla Heise, Coffee and Coffee Houses, trans. Paul Roper (Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1987). CHAPTER 2: COFFEE’S ODYSSEY FROM CROP TO CUP 1 The oft-cited “second most valuable item

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of Westphalia, Manifesto of February 17, 1784. Gray, Arthur. Over the Black Coffee. New York: The Baker and Taylor Company, 1902. Heise, Ulla. Coffee and Coffeehouses. Translated by Paul Roper. Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1987. Jacob, Heinrich Eduard. Coffee, the Epic of a Commodity. Translated by Eden and Cedar Paul. New

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John Stockdale opposite Burlington House, 1785. Nevill, Ralph. Clubs: Their History and Treasures. London: Chatto and Windus, 1911. Robinson, Edward Forbes. The Early History of Coffeehouses in England. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trüber & Co., Ltd., 1893. Schapira, J. and K. Schapira. The Book of Coffee and Tea. New York: St.

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4: Illustration of Kaldi, from All About Coffee by William Ukers, reprinted by permission of the Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. Page 14: Lloyd’s Coffee House illustration by permission of Lloyd’s of London. Page 32: Illustration of the King’s Arms, from All About Coffee by William Ukers, reprinted by

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Ceylon chicory China Chock full o’ Nuts Christianity Coca-Cola, coffee interests Coffea Coffee and Beer Manifesto of 1777, coffee break Coffee Crisis coffee cycle coffeehouses, and revolution as civic institutions in Austria in colonial America in England in France modern resurgence origins Cold War Colombia rivalry with Brazil Colombian Coffee

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UK retail US retail volatility processing Procter and Gamble position on coffee agreements See also Folgers production, excess top countries worldwide prohibition of coffee and coffeehouses quality, decline effect on price improvement Rainforest Alliance Rauwolf, Leonhard Ray, Paul retail prices. See price, US retail roasters, concentration history market share specialty

A History of the World in 6 Glasses

by Tom Standage · 1 Jan 2005 · 231pp · 72,656 words

drinks, and became centers of commercial, political, and intellectual exchange. Coffee promoted clarity of thought, making it the ideal drink for scientists, businessmen, and philosophers. Coffeehouse discussions led to the establishment of scientific societies, the founding of newspapers, the establishment of financial institutions, and provided fertile ground for revolutionary thought, particularly

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was actually being broken, so attempts to ban coffee ultimately failed. By the early seventeenth century, visiting Europeans were commenting on the widespread popularity of coffeehouses in the Arab world, and their role as meeting places and sources of news. William Biddulph, an English traveler, noted in 1609 that "their

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coffee, the drink's opponents included medical men who believed the new drink was poisonous and commentators who, echoing Arab critics of coffee, worried that coffeehouses encouraged time-wasting and trivial discussion at the expense of more important activities. Others simply objected to the taste of coffee, which was disparaged as

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the debate, with such titles as A Coffee Scuffle (1662), A Broadside Against Coffee (1672), In Defence of Coffee (1674), and Coffee Houses Vindicated (1675). One notable attack on London's coffeehouses came from a group of women, who published The Women's Petition Against Coffee, representing to public consideration the grand inconveniences

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their suitability for hatching plots. Charles was particularly aware of this, since coffeehouse machinations had played a small part in his own accession to the throne. On December 29, 1675, the king issued a "Proclamation for the suppression of Coffee-houses," declaring that since such establishments "have produced very evil and dangerous effects

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the Peace and Quiet of the Realm; His Majesty hath thought it fit and necessary, That the said Coffee-Houses be (for the future) Put down and Suppressed." The result was a public outcry, for coffeehouses had by this time become central to social, commercial, and political life in London. When it became

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exchange. 8 The Coffeehouse Internet You that delight in Wit and Mirth, and long to hear such News, As comes from all parts of the Earth, Dutch, Danes, and Turksand Jews, I'le send you a Rendezvous, where it is smoaking new: Go hear it at a Coffee-house—it cannot but be

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. . . There's nothing done in all the World, From Monarch to the Mouse, But every Day or Night 'tis hurl'd into the Coffee-house. —from "News from the Coffee-House" by Thomas Jordan (1667) A Coffee-Powered Network WHEN A SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY European businessman wanted to hear the latest business news, follow commodity

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he could read the latest pamphlets and newsletters, chat with other patrons, strike business deals, or take part in literary or political discussions. Europe's coffeehouses functioned as information exchanges for scientists, businessmen, writers, and politicians. Like modern Web sites, they were vibrant and often unreliable sources of information, typically specializing

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topic or political viewpoint. They became the natural outlets for a stream of newsletters, pamphlets, advertising free-sheets, and broadsides. One contemporary observer noted: "The Coffee-houses particularly are very commodious for a free Conversation, and for reading at an easie Rate all manner of printed News, the Votes of Parliament when

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London magazine founded in 1709, used the names of coffeehouses as subject headings for its articles. Its first issue declared: "All accounts of Gallantry, Pleasure, and Entertainment shall be under the Article of White's Chocolate-house; Poetry, under that of Will's Coffee-house; Learning, under the title of Grecian; Foreign and

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Domestick News, you will have from St. James's Coffee-house." Richard Steele, the Tatler's editor, gave its postal address as the Grecian coffeehouse, the preferred haunt of the scientific community. This was another

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coffeehouse innovation: After the establishment of the London penny post in 1680, it became a

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a mailing address. Regulars at a particular coffeehouse could pop in once or twice a day, drink a dish of coffee, hear the latest news, and check to see if there was any new mail waiting for them. "Foreigners remarked that the coffee-house was that which especially distinguished London from all

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his History of England. "The coffee-house was the Londoner's home, and that those who wished to find a gentleman commonly asked, not whether he lived in Fleet Street or Chancery Lane, but whether he frequented the Grecian or the Rainbow." Some people frequented multiple coffeehouses, the choice of which depended on

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that, between 1680 and 1730, consumed more coffee than anywhere else on Earth. The diaries of intellectuals of the time are littered with coffeehouse references: "Thence to the coffee-house" appears frequently in the celebrated diary of Samuel Pepys, an English public official. His entry for January 11, 1664, gives a flavor of

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the cosmopolitan, serendipitous atmosphere that prevailed within the coffeehouses of the period, where matters both profound and trivial were discussed, and you never knew

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who you might meet, or what you might hear: "Thence to the Coffee-house, whither comes Sir W. Petty and Captain Grant, and we fell

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the prodigious height of palm trees; and "the extreme deliciousness of the queen pine apple," then a new and exotic fruit from the West Indies. Coffeehouses were centers of self-education, literary and philosophical speculation, commercial innovation, and, in some cases, political fermentation. But above all they were clearinghouses for news

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decline, and few or none follow it now in the university?" he asked. "Answer: Because of coffee-houses, where they spend all their time." But coffee's opponents could not have been more wrong, for coffeehouses became popular venues for academic discussion, particularly among those who took an interest in the progress of

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recorded in his diary that he demonstrated an improved form of astronomical quadrant at the Royal Society, and repeated his demonstration afterward at Garraway's coffeehouse, where he discussed it with John Flamsteed, an astronomer appointed by Charles II as the first astronomer royal the following year. In contrast with

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the formal atmosphere of the society's meetings, coffeehouses provided a more relaxed atmosphere which encouraged discussion, speculation, and exchange of ideas. Hooke's diary gives examples of how information could be exchanged in

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spring scales. . . . He told me his mechanick rope scale." On another occasion Hooke exchanged recipes for medical remedies with a friend at St. Dunstan's coffeehouse. Such discussions also allowed scientists to try out half-formed theories and ideas. Hooke, however, had a reputation for being boastful, argumentative, and overstating his

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however, and this prize went unclaimed. A few months later Halley went to Cambridge, where he visited another scientific colleague, Isaac Newton. Recalling his heated coffeehouse discussion with Wren and Hooke, Halley asked Newton the same question: Would an inverse-square law of gravity give rise to elliptical orbits? Like Hooke

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an idea in a coffeehouse and proving its correctness; Hooke had not published his ideas or formally presented them to the society; and he had a reputation for claiming to have thought of everything before anyone else (though, in many cases, he actually had). "Being adjourned to the coffee-house," Halley wrote to

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Despite Hooke's protestations, the coffeehouse had given its verdict, which still stands today. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the dissemination of scientific knowledge through London's coffeehouses took on a new, more structured form. A series of lectures on mathematics was given at the Marine Coffee House, near St. Paul's

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, starting in 1698, after which coffeehouses became popular venues for lectures of increasing complexity. Equipped with the latest microscopes, telescopes, prisms, and pumps, James Hodgson, a former assistant of

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in astronomy and microscopy. Hodgson also gave private lessons and published a book about navigation. Similarly, the Swan Coffee-House in Threadneedle Street was the venue for lectures on mathematics and astronomy, while another coffeehouse, in Southwark, was owned by a family who taught mathematics, published books on navigation, and sold scientific instruments

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. Special lectures on astronomy were organized at both Button's coffeehouse and the Marine to coincide with an eclipse of the sun. These lectures served both commercial and scientific interests. Seamen and merchants realized that science

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scheme that collapsed in September 1720, ruining thousands of investors, was played out in coffeehouses such as Garraway's. But among the successful examples, the best known began in the coffeehouse opened in London in the late 1680s by Edward Lloyd. It became a meeting place for ship captains, shipowners, and merchants, who went

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the exchange. In protest, the stockbrokers abandoned the exchange and moved into the coffeehouses in the surrounding streets, and one in particular: Jonathan's, in Exchange Alley. One broker's advertisement from 1695 reads: "John Castaing at Jonathan's Coffee House on Exchange, buys and sells all Blank and Benefit Tickets; and all

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other Stocks and Shares." As the volume of trade grew, the drawbacks of the informal nature of coffeehouse trading became apparent. Brokers who defaulted on payment were prevented from

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today as the Financial Revolution. The need to fund expensive colonial wars made it necessary, and the fertile intellectual environment and speculative spirit of the coffeehouses made it possible. The financial equivalent of the Principia was The Wealth of Nations, written by the Scottish economist Adam Smith. It described and championed

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wrote much of his book in the British Coffee House, his base and postal address in London, and a popular meeting place for Scottish intellectuals, among whom he circulated chapters of his book for criticism and comment. So it was that London's coffeehouses were the crucibles of the scientific and financial

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he was "not yet convinced that any Access to men in Power gives a man more Truth or Light than the Politicks of a Coffee House." Miles's coffeehouse was the meeting place of a regular discussion group, founded in 1659 and known as the "Amateur Parliament." Pepys observed that its debates were

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, while the Cafe des Aveugles doubled as a brothel. Unlike the salons frequented by the aristocracy, the French coffeehouses were open to all, even to women. According to one eighteenth-century account, "The coffee-houses are visited by respectable persons of both sexes: we see among them many various types: men-about-town

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drinkers, gamesters, parasites, adventurers in the field of love or industry, young men of letters—in a word, an unending series of persons." Within a coffeehouse, the egalitarian society to which Enlightenment thinkers aspired might, on the surface, appear to have been brought to life. But the circulation of information in

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French coffeehouses, in both spoken and written form, was subject to strict government oversight. With tight curbs on freedom of the press and a bureaucratic system of

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a worse king; that the court and the ministers make the king do shameful things, which utterly disgust his people," reads another, from 1749. French coffeehouses highlighted the paradox that despite the intellectual advances of the Enlightenment, progress in the social and political spheres had been hindered by the dead hand

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meetings, it is still the drink that facilitates exchange and cooperation without the risk of the loss of self-control associated with alcohol. The original coffeehouse culture is echoed perhaps best in Internet cafes and wireless-Internet hot spots that facilitate the caffeine-fueled exchange of information, and in coffee-shop

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were increasingly difficult to distinguish from taverns. As the writer Daniel Defoe remarked, such establishments "are but ale houses, only they think that the name coffee-house gives a better air." For the poor, tea gradually became an affordable luxury and then a necessity; tricks such as stretching a small quantity of

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of Calculation"; Stewart, The Rise of Public Science; Ellis, The Penny Universities; Inwood, The Man Who Knew Too Much; Jacob, Coffee; and Waller, 1700. For coffeehouses in prerevolutionary Paris, see Darnton, "An Early Information Society"; Kors, ed., The Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment; and Weinberg and Bealer, The World of Caffeine. 9

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Germs and Steel. London: Jonathan Cape, 1997. Dunkling, Leslie. The Guinness Drinking Companion. Middlesex: Guinness, 1982. Ellis, Aytoun. The Penny Universities: A History of the Coffee-houses. London: Seeker & Warburg, 1956. Ellison, Rosemary. "Diet in Mesopotamia: The Evidence of the Barley Ration Texts (c. 3000-1400 BQ." Iraq 43 (1981): 35-45

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(December 1950). Hassan, Ahmad Y. al-, and Donald R. Hill. Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Hattox, Ralph S. Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985. Hawkes, Jacquetta. The First Great Civilizations: Life in

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of Drinking. Oxford: Social Issues Research Centre, 2000. Sommerville, C. John. "Surfing the Coffeehouse." History Today 47, no. 6 (June 1997): 8-10. Stewart, Larry. "Other Centres of Calculation, or, Where the Royal Society Didn't Count: Commerce, Coffee-houses and Natural Philosophy in Early Modern London." British Journal for the History of

Writing on the Wall: Social Media - the First 2,000 Years

by Tom Standage · 14 Oct 2013 · 290pp · 94,968 words

pamphlets with which Royalists and Parliamentarians courted public opinion during the English Civil War; the stream of news sheets and pamphlets that coursed through Enlightenment coffee houses; the first scientific journals and correspondence societies, which enabled far-flung scientists to discuss and build upon each other’s work; the pamphlets and

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an hour or two in the evening, than at a coffeehouse? Where they shall be sure to meet company, and, by the custom of the house, not such as at other places, stingy and reserved to themselves, but free and communicative. —from “Coffee-Houses Vindicated” (1675) SOCIAL NETWORKING BY THE CUP In the

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much “credit got … he’s no gentleman that drinks it not.” It swiftly became the preferred drink of scientists, intellectuals, merchants, and clerks, and coffee houses established themselves as centers of information exchange where the latest pamphlets, broadsheets, gazettes, and newsletters could be read and discussed. As a popular rhyme, “News

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smoaking new: Go hear it at a Coffee-house—it cannot but be true … There’s nothing done in all the World, From Monarch to the Mouse, But every Day or Night ’tis hurl’d into the Coffee-house. Of all Europe’s cities, London embraced the coffeehouse most quickly and wholeheartedly. The city’s

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first coffeehouse was opened in 1652 by Pasqua Rosée, the Armenian servant of an English merchant who had acquired

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he was not a freeman of the City. Rosée was ultimately forced out of the country, but the idea of the coffeehouse had taken hold. By 1663, the number of coffee houses in London had reached eighty-three. Many were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, but even more arose

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and most cities and eminent towns throughout the nation.” It was a similar tale in France. After the first coffeehouse in Paris, Café Procope, opened its doors in 1686, the number of coffee houses in the city quickly mushroomed, reaching three hundred eighty by 1720, six hundred by 1750, and eight hundred by

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s Cathedral by clergyman and theologians. The literary set, meanwhile, congregated at Will’s coffeehouse in Covent Garden, where for three decades the poet John Dryden and his circle reviewed and discussed the latest poems and plays. Coffee houses around the Royal Exchange were thronged with businessmen, who would keep regular hours at

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where to find them, and who used coffee houses as offices, meeting rooms, and venues for trade. In Jonathan’s, in Exchange Alley, customers bought and sold stocks and commodities, the prices of which were posted on the wall. Merchants and shipowners met in Lloyd’s coffeehouse. Books were sold at Man’s

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des Armes d’Espagne. The Café des Aveugles doubled as a brothel. Some people frequented multiple coffee houses, the choice of which depended on their interests. A merchant, for example, might divide his day between a financial coffeehouse and one specializing in Baltic, West Indian, or East Indian shipping. And one way to

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quantify the wide-ranging interests of the English scientist Robert Hooke is to note that according to his diary, he frequented around sixty London coffee houses during the 1670s. So closely were some coffee houses associated with

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you will have from St James’s Coffee-house. Whatever the topic, the main business of coffee houses was the sharing and discussion of news and opinion in spoken, written, and printed form; their patrons wanted to imbibe information as well as coffee and tobacco. Entering a coffeehouse, one would be greeted through thick clouds

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at a large table covered with papers of various kinds. One writer in 1682 explained that coffeehouse patrons might expect to find “a table of an acre long covered with nothing but tobacco-pipes and pamphlets.” Coffee houses subscribed to periodicals and gathered together a wide range of material; some were supplied with

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foreign journals and gazettes, or subscribed to manuscript newsletters. An account from 1707 remarked that “the Coffee houses particularly are very commodious for a free Conversation, and for reading at an easie Rate all manner of printed News, the Votes of Parliament when

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within them, that Charles II tried to close them down in 1675, fearing that they were centers of seditious plotting. A royal proclamation declared that coffee houses had produced “very evil and dangerous effects … for that in such Houses … divers False, Malitious and Scandalous Reports are devised and spread abroad, to

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a petition in protest. The chancellor of the exchequer took their side, reminding the king that the sale of coffee, tea, and chocolate in coffee houses produced valuable tax revenues. And some of the king’s advisers expressed doubts about the legality of the ban. The king swiftly backtracked. The proclamation

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, along with the impractical requirement that proprietors had to police the content being shared within their walls, and everyone simply carried on as before. Coffee houses had successfully pushed back against regulation and defended their valued status as forums for free speech and the free exchange of ideas. The effect of

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these caffeine-powered hubs was to increase the speed and efficiency with which information percolated through society. Coffee houses imposed order on the chaotic media environment of the time, sorting material by topic and making it much easier to find specific types of information

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, and people to discuss it with. Both pamphlets and people, to use the modern term, became more “discoverable.” Coffee houses gave physical form to the previously immaterial social networks along which information passed, making it much easier to connect to them. If you wanted to

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scientists were talking about, for example, and make contact with them, all you had to do was walk into the Grecian coffeehouse. The social mixing that took place in coffee houses allowed ideas to leap over the boundaries of England’s class system, as the writer John Aubrey observed when he praised the

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likely to find a receptive audience. And pamphleteers of every stripe, notably Jonathan Swift and Daniel Defoe, found that coffeehouse discussions offered a rich source of material for their sharp-witted satires. Coffee houses became the logical place not just to read new works, but to write them, too. After the final collapse

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at a particular coffeehouse would pop in once or twice a day, drink a dish of coffee, hear the latest news, and check to see if there was any new mail waiting for them. With their promise of a constant and unpredictable stream of news, messages, and gossip, coffee houses were an

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alluring social platform for sharing information. The interior of a London coffeehouse, where people went to read, discuss, and (sometimes) write pamphlets. Mary Evans Picture Library ARE COFFEE HOUSES MAKING US STUPID? So seductive was this new environment—one never

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knew what one might learn on one’s next visit, or whom one might meet—that coffeehouse denizens found themselves whiling away hours in reading and discussion, oblivious to

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the passage of time. “Thence to the coffeehouse” appears frequently in the celebrated diary of Samuel Pepys, an English public official. His entry for January 11, 1664, gives a flavor of the cosmopolitan, serendipitous atmosphere that prevailed within the coffee houses of the period, where matters both trivial and profound were

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, and fretted that the livelihoods of tavern-keepers might be threatened. But most of all they lamented, like critics of social media today, that coffee houses were distracting people and encouraging them to waste time sharing trivia with their friends when they ought to be doing useful work. When coffee became

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popular in Oxford and coffee houses began to multiply, the university authorities objected, fearing that this was promoting idleness and diverting students from their studies. Anthony Wood, an Oxford antiquarian,

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can apply close to a subject with his head full of the din of a coffeehouse?” Inevitably, the opposition to coffee houses found expression in pamphlet form. The author of “The Grand Concern of England Explained” (1673) grumbled that coffee houses had acquaintancethIQ done great mischiefs to the nation, and undone many of the King

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out of closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and in coffee houses.” The author of the pamphlet “Coffee-houses Vindicated” made another classical reference when extolling coffee houses’ character-improving virtues: “In brief, it is undeniable, that, as you have here the most civil, so it

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be, for spending of a Penny.” Highbrow coffeehouse discussions were particularly popular among those who took an interest in the progress of science, or “natural philosophy” as it was known at the time. As Hooke’s diary shows, he and his scientific colleagues used coffee houses as venues for academic debates, negotiations with

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formality of the society’s meetings, coffee houses provided a relaxed atmosphere that promoted more freewheeling discussion and speculation. Hooke’s diary gives examples of how ideas were tossed around, with information jotted on scraps of paper or scribbled into notebooks. At one meeting, at Man’s coffeehouse, Hooke and Wren traded information

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environment of a coffeehouse and proving its correctness. Unlike Newton, Hooke had not published his ideas or formally presented them to the society, and he was always claiming to have thought of other people’s ideas first (though, in many cases, he actually had). “Being adjourned to the coffee-house,” Halley wrote

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was one of Hooke’s favorite haunts, was the main coffeehouse in which stock and shares were traded, by virtue of its proximity to the Royal Exchange. Traders and merchants kept particular tables at Jonathan’s, from which they did their business. Coffee houses competed to provide information to their customers, sending boys

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as did one of its regular patrons, Jonathan Castaing, who published “The Course of the Exchange and Other Things” from his “office in Jonathan’s Coffee-house” every Tuesday and Friday starting in March 1697. Castaing’s newsletter listed exchange rates and the prices of gold, silver, various companies’ shares, and various

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from Jonathan’s, in Lombard Street, was Lloyd’s coffeehouse, a popular meeting place for ship captains, shipowners, and merchants, who went to hear the latest maritime news and attend auctions of ship represents a profound shifto IQs and their cargoes. Its proprietor, Edward Lloyd, began to collect and summarize this information, supplemented

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foundational work of modern science, had its origins in a coffeehouse, so too did the work that played the equivalent role in economics: The Wealth of Nations, by the Scottish economist Adam Smith. He wrote much of his book in the British Coffee House, his base and postal address in London and a

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Scottish intellectuals, among whom he circulated chapters of his book for criticism and comment. No doubt there was some time-wasting in coffee houses, as their critics claimed. But coffee houses also provided a lively intellectual and social environment in which people could meet and ideas could collide in unexpected ways, producing a

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world. On balance, the introduction of coffee houses did far more good than harm, which should give those concerned about the time-wasting potential of Internet-based social platforms pause for thought. What new ideas and unexpected connections might be brewing in Twitter’s global coffeehouse? HENRY OLDENBURG ADDED YOU AS A FRIEND

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Mathieu-François Pidansat de Mairobert, a nouvelliste who was arrested in 1749 for collecting and distributing scandalous poems about Louis XV and his mistress in coffee houses, were full of slips of paper covered with poems, anecdotes, and morsels of gossip—a day’s worth of gathering raw material. Mairobertefore Printing.” ,

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many similarities with today’s world. In many respects twenty-first-century Internet media has more in common with seventeenth-century pamphlets or eighteenth-century coffee houses than with nineteenth-century newspapers or twentieth-century radio and television. New media is very different from old media, in short, but has much

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time networking and advertising themselves to other potential employers. Simply put, companies readily equate social networking with social notworking. This too is a familiar worry. Coffee houses, the social-media platforms of their day, inspired similar reactions in the seventeenth century. They were denounced in the 1670s as “a vast loss

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to discuss the latest pamphlets, led to innovations in science, commerce, and finance. By providing an environment in which unexpected connections could be made, coffee houses proved to be hotbeds of collaborative innovation. Similarly, a growing number of companies have concluded that social networking does have a role to play in

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Cultural Sensibility. CHAPTER 6: AND SO TO THE COFFEEHOUSE The rise of the coffeehouse is discussed in Pincus, “Coffee Politicians Does Create”; Cowan, “Mr. Spectator and the Coffeehouse Public Sphere”; and my previous book A History of the World in 6 Glasses. Efforts to suppress the coffee houses are the subject of Cowan, “The Rise

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of the Coffeehouse Reconsidered.” For the use of coffee houses by scientists, see Stewart, “Other Centres of Calculation.” For Oldenburg, correspondence societies, and the origins of the Philosophical

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and M. Hall. “The Reformation and the Book: A Reconsideration.” Historical Journal 47, no. 4 (December 2004): 785–808. Pincus, S. “‘Coffee Politicians Does Create’: Coffee houses and Restoration Political Culture.” Journal of Modern History 67, no. 4 (December 1995): 807–834. Ponder, B. American Independence: From Common Sense to the Declaration

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A History of News. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Stewart, L. “Other Centres of Calculation, or, Where the Royal Society Didn’t Count: Commerce, Coffee-Houses and Natural Philosophy in Early Modern London.” British Journal for the History of Science 32, no. 2 (June 1999): 133–153. Stimson, D. “Hartlib, Haak