The Dream of Europe: Travels in the Twenty-First Century
by Geert Mak · 27 Oct 2021 · 722pp · 223,701 words
died, yet almost as much attention is paid here to the fate of other Europeans. You can see the Schüsselmaschine E, better known as the Enigma machine, a triumphant prize of the Poles, who made an incalculable contribution to the liberation of Europe just by breaking the German codes. But there’s
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País 176, 440 emigration 97, 101, 176, 191, 258, 259, 309, 346, 347, 431, 480–1 Enduring Freedom, Operation 68–9 Energias de Portugal 179 Enigma machine (Schüsselmaschine E) 198 Enlightenment 2, 76, 83, 350, 375, 456, 522 Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip 97, 359, 360, 365, 406, 476, 482, 489, 508 Eribon, Didier
The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication From Ancient Times to the Internet
by David Kahn · 1 Feb 1963 · 1,799pp · 532,462 words
, but when in 1928 messages with quite different letter frequencies appeared, it failed. Through analysis or spies, it learned that the new system was the Enigma machine. And here the head of the Biuro Szyfrów proved himself more farsighted than any country’s cryptanalytic chief in the 1920s. Franciszek Pokorny recognized that
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the struggle. And by doing so, it saved lives. And what contribution could be greater than that? The great story of the solution of the Enigma machine and its effects on World War II remained a tightly held secret for almost 30 years. Only a few tiny shards of light about it
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for decades—probably the best example of general security in history. The British government insisted upon this silence because it had given the thousands of Enigma machines that it had gathered up after the end of the war to its former colonies as they gained independence and needed secure systems of communication
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using shift registers, cryptosystems based on elliptic curves and other mathematical techniques—all are implemented today not on the alphabet of 26 letters, as the Enigma machine and the hand cipher systems of yesteryear were, but on the binary digital alphabet of 0s and 1s. The reason is that this is the
The Woman Who Smashed Codes: A True Story of Love, Spies, and the Unlikely Heroine Who Outwitted America's Enemies
by Jason Fagone · 25 Sep 2017 · 592pp · 152,445 words
turned with the application of electrical current. Called rotors, these electrified wheels represented an important advance that would find more sophisticated expression in the German Enigma machine; rotors could be easily removed, swapped, and linked in a chain. William asked Hebern how he happened to think of this elegant concept of a
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. President Roosevelt used SIGABAs to communicate from his Hyde Park home and when he traveled on the presidential train. The SIGABA was like an American Enigma machine or Purple machine, only inviolate. No enemy codebreaker, whether German, Italian, or Japanese, would ever manage to break it, despite strenous efforts; the Nazis ultimately
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examine one of the cipher machines she kept there in case she should encounter a message that had been generated by one. She had an Enigma machine on the shelf, an old version that had been freely available in the 1920s. She also had a Kryha there, the semicircular German device that
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have been writing equations, but she was thinking mathematically. This is also why, in 1940, when Elizebeth encountered her first Enigma messages from a German Enigma machine, she didn’t feel overly intimidated. Enigma was a straightforward idea expressed in a diabolical device. In the simplest sense, it was a box that
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its own ULTRA factories in Washington and sharing the burden. But early in the war, when Elizebeth and her coast guard unit analyzed their first Enigma machine, ULTRA was a strictly British franchise. There was no one to tell the Americans what to do. They had to invent their own method. At
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, a B never meant B. This suggested an Enigma. They went to the shelf in their coast guard office and picked up their old commercial Enigma machine. The codebreakers had already solved most of the messages, but now they wondered if they could solve the machine itself—the wiring. Knowing the wiring
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coffee, and identifying cribs to feed into the bombes, while others operated the bombes that ticked and whirred as they explored the keyspaces of distant Enigma machines. The buildings were hot and unventilated. An Arlington Hall codebreaker named Martha Waller recalled that in the summer, it was often 90 degrees indoors at
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messages on October 10, 1942. The messages seemed to resist solution. She wondered if it might be an Enigma circuit, the messages encrypted by an Enigma machine of some kind. She called it Circuit 3-N. Presumably the messages on Circuit 3-N were sensitive enough to require a stronger-than-usual
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arrived in Elizebeth’s office each week. By December 1942 she had accumulated twenty-eight encrypted messages. A cursory analysis showed telltale signatures of an Enigma machine. Elizebeth and the coast guard had already solved one Enigma, back in 1940, a commercial Enigma whose wiring scheme was already known. Now they were
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will be ours.” At her coast guard desk, Elizebeth reached for a fresh sheet of grid paper. Circuit 3-N. Argentina to Berlin. The unknown Enigma machine. Twenty-eight unsolved messages from Circuit 3-N now sat in a pile on her desk. She wrote the twenty-eight ciphertexts on the worksheet
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of another, assembling a stack of text so she could solve the messages in depth, like she had done in 1940 to solve the commercial Enigma machine. The twenty-eight messages all appeared to use the same key—a huge gift to the codebreakers from their Nazi adversaries. It made things easier
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and her team—had broken his cipher machines and were now reading his every transmission, but for Utzinger, the prospect of a Yankee breaking an Enigma machine was beyond his comprehension. This wasn’t to say that he slept soundly at night; like any good radio expert, Utzinger lived in a fog
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, and Utzinger asked Berlin to smuggle them a new cipher device through Becker’s network of wolves. Instead of a Kryha, Berlin sent a new Enigma machine. “Enigma arrived via RED,” Utzinger reported to Berlin on November 4, 1943. “Thank you very much.” He typed this message on his older
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Enigma machine, the Green machine. He went on, “From our message 150 we shall encipher with the new Enigma . . . LUNA.” “It is a birthday surprise for LUNA,”
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when you woke up groggy and confused, and your kidney was sitting in a bowl of ice on the counter. She knew about the new Enigma machine sent to Argentina in November 1943—the Red Enigma—because the spies had discussed its delivery in Green messages and she had been reading those
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of Siegfried Becker. Becker: a character out of a novel. A Nazi spy with long curling fingernails. A man who carried explosives in trunks and Enigma machines in his luggage. A seducer of the wives of Brazilian politicians. A stowaway on ocean-crossing ships. An SS-Hauptsturmführer who wore the ring of
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the FBI didn’t intercept the messages. It didn’t monitor the Nazi circuits. It didn’t break the codes. It didn’t solve any Enigma machines. The coast guard did this stuff—the little codebreaking team that Elizebeth created from nothing. During the Second World War, an American woman figured out
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clandestine Nazi messages that her team shared with the global intelligence community. She had conquered at least forty-eight different clandestine radio circuits and three Enigma machines to get these plaintexts. The pages found their way to the navy and to the army. To FBI headquarters in Washington and bureaus around the
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and suggest questions. After listening to the POWs and analyzing the documents, William concluded that Germany had never lost faith in the security of the Enigma machine. They thought Enigma was unbreakable all the way to the end. He was proud to learn that Nazi codebreakers had never managed to defeat America
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), xviii. one to five messages per day “History of USCG Unit #387,” 216–30. All details from the coast guard’s solution to this first Enigma machine are documented here. 200 a linguist and scholar Mavis Batey, “Knox, (Alfred) Dillwyn (1884–1943),” 2004, rev. ed. 2006, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http
War of Shadows: Codebreakers, Spies, and the Secret Struggle to Drive the Nazis From the Middle East
by Gershom Gorenberg · 19 Jan 2021 · 555pp · 163,712 words
a mystery. In the original design, there were close to two billion possible settings.32 In 1926, the navy of the Weimar Republic began using Enigma machines for its communications, followed by the German army in 1928. Nazi Germany’s air force, the Luftwaffe, adopted the machine in 1935.33 Other inventors
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the Zimmermann Telegram. After the Great War, Dilly completed his translation of Herodas but went on working for GC&CS. He acquired an early commercial Enigma machine, though a British expert analyzed the device and decided Britain shouldn’t use Enigma for its own communications. Other countries did adopt the Enigma. Dilly
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, had enough hope to bring in Twinn, Turing, and Welchman.17 When Welchman came to the cottage, someone showed him a copy of a German Enigma machine with the correct wiring and explained the format in which messages were sent. The machine and the explanations, he was told, came from “the Poles
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the Enigma system worked and what was known about the preambles. Once a month, the German code clerks got instructions on how to set their Enigma machines each day. Different parts of the military got different instructions. You could only read a message meant for the air force if you had air
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the repeats in each day’s messages. Where the holes lined up, light would shine through, indicating potential solutions. You could try them on an Enigma machine with that day’s intercepts. In a matter of hours, you’d have the day’s settings. It would work only because the German clerk
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enciphering the wheel setting twice and the clues it provided to discover the daily settings. Rejewski came up with a machine that looked like two Enigma machines tethered together. It could rapidly check settings to see which ones could produce the patterns they found. They called it a bomba, a bomb, perhaps
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plain-language texts, she realized that the twenty-letter sets each day were going through a triple scrambler, similar to the three rotors of an Enigma machine. She rushed into the next room, where the senior staff worked, to ask Rowlett to come see. “Gene has found what we’re looking for
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orders did not come with vehicles. He commandeered a truck and a bus, loaded them with the post’s staffers and files and Polish-made Enigma machines, and headed out into the churning current of refugees on the roads southward.7 Rejewski, Rozycki, and Zygalski were fleeing a German invasion for the
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tested. It’s unlikely that anyone in England would have asked him. The best minds of Bletchley Park assumed that the Poles had pinched an Enigma machine with its wheels, rather than working out the wiring mathematically. After the fall of France, in any case, Rejewski was beyond reach. Dilly Knox’s
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.13 Margaret Storey was working in Hut 6 that winter.14 A standard task for young multilingual women was operating an improvised version of an Enigma machine. The device tested whether a setting suggested by the bombes was, in fact, the one in which a message had been enciphered. If it was
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identified the key used by the German railway administration. It vanished, then reappeared early in 1941. The Nazi railway people used a model of the Enigma machine without a plugboard, which made it easier for John Tiltman to crack the key. By March the number of railway messages multiplied. Most gave instructions
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was dated July 18, 1941, and came from a militarized wing of the police that worked with the SS. The German police did not have Enigma machines. They used a cipher method known as transposition: rearranging the letters of the original text, according to a pattern that shifted daily. At Bletchley Park
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the cottage at Bletchley Park had figured out how to read messages sent between main Abwehr stations with the agency’s special model of the Enigma machine. Knox, dying of cancer, gave credit to Mavis Lever and another woman in his group, Margaret Rock, for solving the puzzle. The value of Abwehr
When Einstein Walked With Gödel: Excursions to the Edge of Thought
by Jim Holt · 14 May 2018 · 436pp · 127,642 words
“rlu” was sent out in Morse code by a radio operator, a recipient would pick it up and type it on the keyboard of his Enigma machine, and the letters “d-o-g” would light up on the lampboard—so long as the settings of the two machines were the same. And
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, increasing the number of possible cipher keys to something like 150 quintillion. The most impenetrable communications were those of the German navy, which used the Enigma machine with special cunning and discipline. By early 1941, Germany’s growing U-boat fleet was devastating British shipping, sinking around sixty ships a month. Unlike
Enigma
by Robert Harris · 15 Feb 2011 · 387pp · 111,096 words
Porpoise. And Shark? Shark was the operational cipher of the U-boats. Shark was unique. Every other cipher was produced on a standard three-rotor Enigma machine. But Shark came out of an Enigma with a specially adapted fourth rotor which made it twenty-six times more difficult to break. Only U
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bundle of secret papers from the radio room, handing them to a boarding party in a boat alongside, and had just gone back for the Enigma machine itself when the U-boat suddenly went bows up and sank. They went down with her—half a mile down, the Navy man had said
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been skilful enough, or lucky enough, then in an hour, or a day, the bombe would churn through a million permutations and reveal how the Enigma machine had been set up. That information was relayed back from the bombe bays to the Decoding Room. Because of its noise, the Decoding Room was
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what he was driving at, then, sadly, he would give up on them as a waste of time. On the same principle, Jericho thought the Enigma machine was beautiful—a masterpiece of human ingenuity that created both chaos and a tiny ribbon of meaning. In the early days at Bletchley he used
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million million—and you were looking at a machine that had around 150 million million million different starting positions. It didn't matter how many Enigma machines you captured or how long you played with them. They were useless unless you knew the rotor order, the rotor starting positions and the plugboard
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. The larger of the two keys unlocked the door to the museum. Stacked on metal shelves along one wall were a dozen or more captured Enigma machines. The smaller key fitted one of a pair of big iron safes. Jericho knelt and opened it and began to rummage through the contents. Here
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Germans have got a whisper of what we're up to here. What would they do? They couldn't exactly chuck out a hundred thousand Enigma machines overnight, could they? And then what about all those experts of theirs, who've always said Enigma is unbreakable? They're not going to change
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place with a loud metallic click. Each was wired to mimic the action of a single Enigma rotor: 108 in all, equivalent to thirty-six Enigma machines running in parallel. When all the drums had been set, the bombe was trundled back into place and the motor started. The drums began to
The Secrets of Station X: How the Bletchley Park codebreakers helped win the war
by Michael Smith · 30 Oct 2011 · 440pp · 109,150 words
War led a number of nations to adopt machine cyphers, which were seen as more difficult to break. The most famous of these was the Enigma machine. The first British contact with the machine came in 1921, when it was still in development. It was shown to the British military attaché in
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Berlin, in the hope of persuading the British armed forces to use it. The German Navy introduced the Enigma machine cypher in 1926 and for a brief period it remained a possibility that both the British and the German armed forces might use it. In
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oversaw the construction and security of British codes and cyphers, asked Hugh Foss, a specialist in machine cyphers, to test the commercially available machine. The Enigma machine resembled a small typewriter encased in a wooden box. It had a typewriter-style keyboard, set out in the continental QWERTZU manner, which differed slightly
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set number of times, the third wheel moved round one position. The point at which the next wheel moved was known as ‘the turnover’. The Enigma machine had two crucial features which Foss realised would help anyone trying to break it. A letter could not be encyphered as itself (so if the
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which British armed forces used with great success during the Second World War. A year after Foss’s investigation, the German Army began using the Enigma machine and within two years had introduced an enhancement that greatly improved its security. The Stecker-board was an old-fashioned telephone-style plugboard, which allowed
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cyphers with the Deuxième Bureau’s codebreaking operation since 1933. But it was not until late 1938 that the two sides began to discuss the Enigma machine in any detail. Given that the exchange on Russian material had been somewhat one-sided, with the British providing far more than they received in
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return, the French had a surprisingly large amount of material on the Enigma machine. Denniston wrote to Sinclair suggesting that the dialogue was worth continuing. The French had clearly not got far themselves but had produced some 100 documents
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, some of which were of more value than others. They included ‘photographs of documents relating to the use of the Enigma machine which did increase our knowledge of the machine and have greatly aided our researches’, Denniston said. Bertrand made clear that some of the French material
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French-German border, in late 1932, when Asche produced two operators’ manuals, one of which had a message which had been encyphered using a real Enigma machine, and a schedule of daily Army keys for September and October 1932. They were photographed by the French allowing Asche to return the documents to
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reason for seeking this liaison in the first place was the desire to leave no stone unturned which might lead to a solution of the Enigma Machine as used by various German services. This is of vital importance for us and the French have furnished us with documents which have assisted us
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problem for Knox was what he called ‘the QWERTZU’, by which he meant the way in which the letters on the keyboard of the Wehrmacht Enigma machines were wired to the letters on the wheels inside the machine, and he left the meeting in Paris none the wiser. One good thing did
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July 1939. It was only then that the Poles revealed the full extent of the progress they had made in reconstructing the Wehrmacht’s steckered Enigma machine. The Bureau Szyfrow had broken a number of German codes during the early 1920s but the introduction of Enigma had left them unable to read
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worked initially on a part-time basis and it was only in September 1932 that Rejewski, the best of the three, was given the steckered Enigma machine and asked to solve it. By the end of that year, assisted by Enigma key lists obtained by the French from Asche, he had reconstructed
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furious to discover that the Poles had got there first, sitting in ‘stony silence’ as they described their progress and produced a clone of the Enigma machine, reconstructed using the knowledge they had built up over the previous six years. But his good humour soon returned after they told him that the
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commonly used streams of text – known to the codebreakers as cribs – to narrow down the possibilities for the keys, settings and wheel orders of the Enigma machines. Turing enjoyed a good degree of progress on both. Menzies agreed funding of £100,000 for the construction of the first Bombes and the British
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. Machine cyphers like Enigma were developed to try to protect against these tell-tale frequencies and letter pairings, which is why the wheels of the Enigma machine were designed to move around one step after a number of key strokes. By doing this, the Germans hoped to ensure that no original letter
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opportunity to move the middle wheel on a notch. This reduced the odds to a more manageable proportion. They were shortened still further by the Enigma machine’s great drawback. No letter could ever be represented by itself. This was of great assistance in using cribs, pieces of plain text that were
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thought about how the system worked, and might be unravelled, Herivel tried to get into the mind of the operators who were setting up the Enigma machines. How did they go about it; what were they thinking when they did it? The operators using Enigma began each day by putting the correct
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, more than seven feet wide and two-and-a-half feet deep, containing a series of thirty rotating drums equating to the wheels of ten Enigma machines, although later versions simulated the action of twelve machines. It contained around ten miles of wire and about a million soldered connections. The Bombe was
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a possible match, it stopped and was quickly tested by the operator on a British Type-X cypher machine rigged up to work like an Enigma machine to see if it produced German text. If it did, the operator was able to declare: ‘The job’s up’ and pass it back for
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of the ‘Special Intelligence’. Denniston told Menzies that Currier and his colleagues had been ‘informed of the progress made on the Enigma machine’. The Americans were given ‘a paper model of the Enigma machine, detailing its internal wiring and how it worked, together with details of the Bombes. This was as much as, if
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the British, and doing nothing to assuage their concerns over US security, by writing an unclassified letter to demand that the Americans be given an Enigma Machine. Safford later claimed that the British reneged on their side of the deal and had ‘double-crossed us’. The US Navy sent the British all
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false perception that the British were holding back on the exchange deal, largely the result of the US Navy codebreakers, failure to understand the ‘paper Enigma machine’ the British had handed over, was to become endemic among a number of senior US Navy officers. Yet at the cutting edge, US codebreakers said
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out was by decyphering the messages passed between the Abwehr outstations in Paris, Madrid, Lisbon and their headquarters. But these links all used the Abwehr Enigma machine, which was completely different to those used by the other German services. Hut 6 had looked at the Abwehr Enigma early in 1941 but had
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were trusted or under suspicion, in which case steps could be taken to remedy the situation. Two months later, Mavis Lever solved a separate Abwehr Enigma machine, known as GGG, which was used near the Spanish border. By the spring of 1942, the information collected from the Bletchley Park decrypts had built
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given a chance to make the submarine cypher even more secure he jumped at it. The plan involved a slight internal re-design of the Enigma machine. A new, thinner reflector with different wiring was introduced, leaving space for an extra wheel that, while it did not rotate during encypherment, could be
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side of the U-Boat, causing so much damage that the commander was forced to surrender. Inside the U-Boat was the casing of an Enigma machine with a fourth indicator window. References to the fourth wheel soon started to appear in decyphered messages and, on occasions, operators used it in error
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Middlesex; increased recruitment of Wrens; and two different development programmes put in place to produce an upgraded Bombe that could cope with the four-wheel Enigma machine. Doc Keen began work on a high-speed machine with an additional row of wheels that could complete a standard three-wheel run in less
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‘U-Boat meetings’ with the Naval Section. He also increased pressure for the introduction of the new Bombes designed to cope with the four-wheel Enigma machine. But the solution to Shark was already in place. Two days after the Admiralty memorandum, a pinch of two German ‘short signal’ codebooks arrived at
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. Page 35 Germans begin using machine cyphers: Denniston, ‘The Government Code and Cypher School Between the Wars’, p.54. Page 36 Foss asked to test Enigma machine for British use: TNA PRO HW 25/10, H. R. Foss, Reminiscences on the Enigma, p.2. Pages 37–38 Working of Enigma and results
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QWERTZU: Michael Smith, Station X, Decoding Nazi Secrets, TV Books, New York, 1999, pp.30–31; Hinsley & Stripp, Codebreakers, p.127. Page 63 Delivery of Enigma machine to Menzies: Gustave Bertrand, ENIGMA ou La Plus Grande Enigmé de la Guerre 1939–45, Plon, Paris, 1973, p.60. Pages 64–8 Recruitment of
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.121. Page 87 Dryden memories: Hinsley & Stripp, Codebreakers, p.198. Pages 88–2 Turing: TNA PRO HW 25/3, A. M. Turing, Mathematical theory of ENIGMA Machine, p.136. Pages 89–3 Cillies: TNA PRO HW 43/70, History of Hut 6, pp.53–4; interviews with Susan Wenham and Mavis Batey
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, Joe 1, 2 Edward II, King 1 Eisenhower, Dwight 1, 2 el Alamein, Battle of 1 Elizabeth I, Queen 1 Elmer’s School 1, 2 Enigma machine used by German navy 1 offered to British armed forces 1, 2 description of 1 joint attempt by British and French to break 1 clones
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Flowers, Tommy 1, 2 Foley, Frank 1 Foreign Office takes control of GC&CS 1 Forster, Leonard 1 Fortitude South deception 1 Foss, Hugh and Enigma machine 1, 2 and liaison with Deuxième Bureau 1 description of 1 France, invasion of 1, 2, 3 Freeborn, Frederic 1 Freyberg, Bernard 1 Friendly, Alfred
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1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 Tolkien, J.R.R. 1 traffic analysis 1, 2 Travis, Edward 1 and Enigma machine 1 1 and Hut 6 1, 2 and relations with Admiralty 1 differences with Denniston 1 and cultural life at Bletchley Park 1 and reorganisation
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each wheel were used to indicate its precise starting position. The Polish codebreaker Marian Rejewski (TOP LEFT) was the first man to break the ‘steckered’ Enigma machine. The Poles were assisted by information provided by Hans Thilo Schmidt (TOP RIGHT), codenamed Asche, a French spy inside the German Defence Ministry, who sold
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Alexander (LEFT) another of the leading codebreakers and head of the Naval Enigma section Hut 8. RIGHT: A rare photograph of German operators using the Enigma machine. Photographs of the codebreakers working inside the Bletchley Park mansion before the moves to the wooden huts are very rare. Leslie Lambert (TOP), who worked
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settings. Women worked in a wide variety of roles, including codebreaking. These woman are working on the Enigma cyphers in Hut 6. There is an Enigma machine on the table to test solutions. Gordon Welchman, the Cambridge mathematician who set up Hut 6 to break the German Army and Luftwaffe Enigma cyphers
The Man Who Invented the Computer
by Jane Smiley · 18 Oct 2010 · 253pp · 80,074 words
as chairman of the computer science department. Chapter Five Throughout the Second World War, the Germans used a mechanical encoding device that they called the Enigma machine. It had been patented in 1918 or 1919 and put to use by the German army and navy by 1929. In 1931, a German working
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by typing in the same three letters twice in a row (for example NGHNGH) followed by the new settings for the three rotors of the Enigma machine. Knowing what these double letters signified, Rejewski then inferred the entire structure of the Enigma and its operation—the Bombas were built to sift through
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productive). It was Turing and an associate, Gordon Welchman, who were to address the problem of the extra rotors that had been added to the Enigma machine. The new “Bombes,” as they were rechristened, were designed using relays. Andrew Hodges maintains that Turing “was the right person to see what was needed
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211) could sort through probable encoding patterns very quickly. When combinations that looked fruitful were found, the code wheels on the English replica of the Enigma machine were set to mimic what had been found, and either a message came up or it didn’t. The code breaking was painstaking and tedious
The Theory That Would Not Die: How Bayes' Rule Cracked the Enigma Code, Hunted Down Russian Submarines, and Emerged Triumphant From Two Centuries of Controversy
by Sharon Bertsch McGrayne · 16 May 2011 · 561pp · 120,899 words
invaded in 1939 they invited French and British agents to a safehouse in the Pyry Forest outside Warsaw, revealed their system, and sent an updated Enigma machine to London. To an observer, an Enigma looked rather like a complicated typewriter, with a traditional keyboard of 26 letter keys and a second array
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U-boat war in the Atlantic. Of all the branches of the Axis military, Hitler’s navy operated the most complex Enigma machines and security systems. By war’s end, a naval Enigma machine could be set up an astronomical number of ways. According to a Bletchley Park decoder, “All the coolies in China
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message and that indicated the starting positions of the Enigma’s three wheels. The operator enciphered the three letters twice over: once mechanically, with his Enigma machine, and once manually, by selecting one of nine sets of tables in a codebook issued to each sub. The operator learned which table to use
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the probability of a hypothesis before new data is observed probability the mathematics of uncertainty; the numerical measure of uncertainty rotors the geared wheels on Enigma machines sampling the selection of a finite number of observations in order to learn about a much larger statistical population sequential analysis the continuous analysis of
The Myth of Artificial Intelligence: Why Computers Can't Think the Way We Do
by Erik J. Larson · 5 Apr 2021
significantly for use in the war. Modified Enigmas were used for all strategic communications in the Nazi war effort. The Luftwaffe, for instance, used the Enigma machine in its conduct of the air war, as did the Kriegsmarine in its naval operations. Messages encrypted with the modified Enigma were widely thought to
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general intelligence, 2, 31, 36; abduction in, 4; in machines, 38; nonexistance of, 27; possible theory of, 271 General Problem Solver (AI program), 51 Germany: Enigma machine of, 23–24; during World War II, 20–21 Go (game), 125, 131, 161–162 Gödel, Kurt, 11, 22, 239; incompleteness theorems of, 12–15
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