by Kenneth Rogoff · 27 Feb 2025 · 330pp · 127,791 words
, in theory, the U.S. government had to stand ready to exchange dollars for gold for any government that wished to do so. Thanks to network effects, international currency usage is a natural monopoly. So it should not be surprising that once a currency establishes itself in international transactions, the use of
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those of any other currency. Also, the dollar having started out in an undeniably privileged position after the destruction of World Wars I and II, network effects have set in that make using the dollar extremely convenient for private markets, even if other governments chafe at the advantages they perceive that the
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turn was linked to a web of financial transactions, which quite naturally were also indexed to dollars. All of this happened organically, essentially driven by network effects that policymakers had to find a way to accommodate. In principle, Asia could have created a currency union aimed at supporting intra-Asian trade just
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legal unit of account in a broad range of activities—for example, bookkeeping for tax records and legal documents. All these channels combine to create network effects that give the government currency an insurmountable advantage. If that’s not enough, the government can add more restrictions, such as requiring that bank deposits
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that even if governments cannot ban cryptocurrencies entirely, they can certainly create laws that make them difficult and expensive to use, and thereby quash the network effects needed for any cryptocurrency to compete with government currency.3 (My skepticism about a private cryptocurrency replacing the dollar is not to deny the distinct
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, more ambitiously, taking a slice of the dollar’s international business. These central banks are hoping that blockchain technology might help overcome the size and network effects that have made the dollar so pervasive. After all, if stateless bitcoin can carve out a substantial market, why not a digital currency backed by
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nations to trust the dollar, the era of low inflation helped build up the base of dollar users and applications, reinforcing and strengthening dollar network effects. The network effects will not unwind overnight if the Fed once again loses the plot on inflation, but they will gradually erode. There will be substitution into other
by John Y. Campbell and Tarun Ramadorai · 25 Jul 2025
are more likely to obtain financial education informally, from their friends and relatives, and more likely to learn about specific profitable investment opportunities. While these network effects can sometimes lead people astray—as when friends recommend risky cryptocurrencies or a fraudulent Ponzi scheme, such as the one infamously operated by Bernard Madoff
by Maximilian Kasy · 15 Jan 2025 · 209pp · 63,332 words
tends to be given to whether the mergers make workers worse off. Both individual and collective action by consumers can be made more difficult by network effects. Network effects are present whenever a service is more useful if more other people are using the same service. Social media platforms are an obvious example. It
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is not particularly fun or interesting to be on a social media platform if no one else is there. When there are network effects, it is very hard to switch to a new platform. Everyone on the old platform would need to switch to the same new platform at
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the same time, which is nearly impossible to coordinate. There is a twist to this argument, however. Network effects are not an unavoidable fact of nature. Network effects are actively created by companies throughout the economy, particularly in the tech sector. This is a point that has been emphasized by
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is to exert maximum control over their users, with the ultimate purpose of maximizing profits from ad sales. Once a sufficient user base with sufficient network effects has been established, making it hard for users to leave, the quality of services can be reduced, and the focus can be shifted to profit
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, and into public relations more broadly. Bad press can lead to substantial drops in users and thus in ad sales. Network effects make it hard for consumers to leave a platform or service on their own. These network effects are actively created to reduce consumer power. But there is a flip side to these
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network effects. They can also amplify collective drops in consumer demand. When, for example, the use of Twitter dropped after Elon Musk’s
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to the platform, or his political goals. This created an opening for networks such as Mastodon (a nonprofit) and Bluesky (operated as a benefit corporation). Network effects can thus amplify swings in consumer demand, and thereby increase the importance of public opinion. Both the power and the limitations of consumer demand as
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requirements, which might for instance posit that it needs to be possible for users on one platform to follow users on another platform. We mentioned network effects above. Network effects are hard to maintain if interoperability is guaranteed. Interoperability is so ubiquitous in our economy that it is almost invisible. Interoperability is maintained by
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, 58–62 multitasking, 125, 127–28, 130 Musk, Elon, 3, 106 Naidu, Suresh, 200 nationalism, 72 natural language modeling, 53 Netanyahu, Benjamin, 126 Netflix, 85 network effects, 105, 106–7, 110 neural nets: artificial vs. biological, 44, 50, 94; building, 50–51; and complex modeling, 11, 41, 50; in diffusion models, 54
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, 72, 97–98; fairness in relation to, 165–69; as fundamental corporate goal, 97–98, 133–34; input decisions related to, 150–51; monopolies, 90; network effects used for, 105–6; social welfare in relation to, 98–99, 112–13; targeted advertising and, 30–32, 60, 85, 87, 105, 122–23, 188
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, 87 skill-based technical change, 155–56 small changes/smallest possible changes, 182–83, 185 social choice theory, 75 social media: ethical issues for, 98; network effects and interoperability for, 105, 110; targeted ads and content on, 10, 12–13, 23–24, 30–32, 56, 60, 71, 103, 122–23, 131; use
by Tim Wu · 4 Nov 2025 · 246pp · 65,143 words
platform can muster, the more valuable it is. More buyers and more sellers attract more of each, in a version of what is sometimes called “network effects.”[*2] As economist David Evans writes in Matchmakers, platform businesses have as “raw materials […] the different groups of customers that they help bring together.” Think
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. However, Williamson largely focused on the advantages that an integrated firm might have, as opposed to the reduction of transaction costs between unrelated parties. *2 “Network effects” (or externalities) refers to the idea that a network may become more valuable the more people use it and was originally used to describe services
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to deal with the decline and collapse of oversized firms. Skip Notes * Monopoly is common when the advantages of scale are linked with another principle: “network effects,” in which a business gains an advantage by having more customers or users. The classic example is the telephone network, which is more valuable the
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businessman knows, firms do everything they can to prevent losing market power—in business lingo, building “moats” and “walls” consisting of switching costs, brand loyalty, network effects, and governmental regulation. And why not? Market power is money and power, two things that most firms want. Why the economic prophets surveyed here decided
by W. David Marx · 18 Nov 2025 · 642pp · 142,332 words
of self-actualization. Yet even as the tech market roared in the 2010s, the viable paths to such fortunes narrowed to proprietary technological breakthroughs (Google), network effects (Facebook), and ruthless business strategies (Uber). This made magical thinking essential for a generation of aspiring young billionaires. Many saw dishonesty as justifiable—even necessary
by David G. W. Birch and Victoria Richardson · 28 Apr 2024 · 249pp · 74,201 words
expect to see the drivers amplified. Large data holdings, rich in volume and variety, thus give large online platforms a significant competitive advantage, powered by network effects and the virtuous cycle between data and the AI algorithms improving the services and increasing revenues. How big is the problem? While the data economy
by Antti Ilmanen · 24 Feb 2022
acronym covering the five largest US firms.11 Investors believe(d) in the ever greater concentration of monopolistic profits among these disruptive firms, thanks to network effects, R&D edge, increasing returns to scale, and winner-takes-all outcomes. The presumption is that the dominating disrupters will not themselves be disrupted either
by Philipp Carlsson-Szlezak and Paul Swartz · 8 Jul 2024 · 259pp · 89,637 words
. 7. There is one unearned benefit the incumbent does have—inertia. A new currency being incrementally better across the four enablers is not enough, as network effects play a role in keeping the status quo in place. The fact that the dollar is used for reserves, international banking, and trade makes it
by Charles Wheelan · 18 Apr 2010 · 386pp · 122,595 words
percent of all the gates.6 Or consider a different kind of entry barrier that has become highly relevant in the Internet age: network effects. The basic idea of a network effect is that the value of some goods rises with the number of other people using them. I don’t think Microsoft Word
by Iain M. Banks · 14 Jan 2011 · 216pp · 115,870 words
had taken to doing increasingly often recently, even though it was a dangerous, irresponsible thing to do, to be apart from the Hub's information network, effectively cut off from the rest of the Culture. He held his breath, sat dead still. The little machine seemed to hesitate in mid-air, then
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by Peter Gutmann
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