Thomas Davenport

The New Ruthless Economy: Work & Power in the Digital Age
by Simon Head
Published 14 Aug 2003

For a discussion of reengjneering see, for example, Michael Hammer and James Champy, Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution (New York, 1993); Michael Hammer, The Reengineering Revolution (New York, 1995); James Champy, Reengineering Management (New York, 1995); Thomas Davenport, Process Innovation, Reengineering Work through Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1993). For a discussion of enterprise resource planning (ERP), see Thomas Davenport, Mission Critical, Realizing the Promise of Enterprise Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). See also Financial Times (London), .FTSurveys: Enterprise Resource Planning, May 26,1999; Enterprise Resource Planning, December 15, 1999; E-Business: ERP and Beyond, July 19,2000. 12.

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Undated, downloaded from www.sap.com/solutions/technology/ workfl__users.htm, July 2001. No longer available at SAP's website but can be obtained from the author at sihead@aol.com. 14. Ibid. 15. Keller and Teufel, SAP R/3 Process-Oriented Implementation, $. 105. 16. Thomas Davenport, "The Fad that Forgot People," Fast Company, November 1995, p. 1. Available at www.fastcompany.com/online/01/ reenging.html. 17. Thomas Davenport, Mission Critical, Realizing the Promise of Enterprise Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 2000). 18. Ibid., p. 143; also pp. 137-42. 19. Keller and Teufel, SAP R/3 Process-Oriented Implementation, p. 56. 20. Philip Manchester, "Rich Rewards Yet to be Unlocked," Financial Times Survey: E-Business and Beyond, July 19, 2000, p. i. 21.

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Thus, Professor Paul David, writing in 2000 about the impact of IT 39 40 THE NEW RUTHLESS ECONOMY investment on the whole economy, could use language very similar to the language used by the MIT Commission in its 1989 study of U.S. manufacturing: "a process of transition to ... new organizational forms . . . with new kinds of workforce skills . . . which would accomplish the abandonment or extensive transformation . . . of the technological regime identified with Fordism."5 The leading practitioners of service sector reengineering also used the language of the new workplace. Thomas Davenport wrote of how reengineering created "a more empowered and diversified work force, eliminating levels of hierarchy, creating self-managing work teams, combining jobs and assigning broader responsibility, and upgrading skills."6 Few would want to oppose a workplace revolution that could enhance the role of employee judgment and skill.

Machine, Platform, Crowd: Harnessing Our Digital Future
by Andrew McAfee and Erik Brynjolfsson
Published 26 Jun 2017

Also relevant is Danah Boyd’s dissertation: “The Networked Nature of Algorithmic Discrimination” (PhD diss., Fordham University, 2014). 53 There’s an old joke: Mark Fisher, The Millionaire’s Book of Quotations (New York: Thorsons, 1991), quoted in Barry Popik, “The Factory of the Future Will Have Only Two Employees, a Man and a Dog,” Barrypopik.com (blog), December 2, 2015, http://www.barrypopik.com/index.php/new_york_city/entry/the_factory_of_the_future. 54 “broken leg role”: Paul E. Meehl, Clinical versus Statistical Prediction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954). 54 “distinct, unanticipated factors”: Ibid. 54 “look out of the window”: Stuart Lauchlan, “SPSS Directions: Thomas Davenport on Competing through Analytics,” MyCustomer, May 14, 2007, http://www.mycustomer.com/marketing/strategy/spss-directions-thomas-davenport-on-competing-through-analytics. 55 This practice earned the company: “Uber ‘Truly Sorry’ for Price Surge during Sydney Siege,” BBC News, December 24, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-30595406. 55 “We didn’t stop surge pricing immediately”: “Uber ‘Truly Sorry’ for Hiking Prices during Sydney Siege,” Telegraph, December 24, 2014, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/australia/11312238/Uber-truly-sorry-for-hiking-prices-during-Sydney-siege.html. 55 Within thirty minutes of the first one: Andrew J.

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Despite decades of research, however, we still don’t understand very much about how we acquire our common sense, and our attempts to instill it in computers have so far been impressive failures, as we’ll discuss more in the next chapter. In many cases, therefore, it’s a good idea to have a person check the computer’s decisions to make sure they make sense. Thomas Davenport, a longtime scholar of analytics and technology, calls this taking a “look out of the window.” The phrase is not simply an evocative metaphor. It was inspired by an airline pilot he met who described how he relied heavily on the plane’s instrumentation but found it essential to occasionally visually scan the skyline himself.

Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think
by Viktor Mayer-Schonberger and Kenneth Cukier
Published 5 Mar 2013

Harnessing data is no guarantee of business success but shows what is possible. The shift to data-driven decisions is profound. Most people base their decisions on a combination of facts and reflection, plus a heavy dose of guesswork. “A riot of subjective visions—feelings in the solar plexus,” in the poet W. H. Auden’s memorable words. Thomas Davenport, a business professor at Babson College in Massachusetts and the author of numerous books on analytics, calls it “the golden gut.” Executives are just sure of themselves from gut instinct, so they go with that. But this is starting to change as managerial decisions are made or at least confirmed by predictive modeling and big-data analysis.

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Zynga data analytics—Nick Wingfield, “Virtual Products, Real Profits: Players Spend on Zynga’s Games, but Quality Turns Some Off,” Wall Street Journal, September 9, 2011 (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111904823804576502442835413446.html). [>] Ken Rudin quotation—From interview of Rudin by Niko Waesche, cited in Erik Schlie, Jörg Rheinboldt, and Niko Waesche, Simply Seven: Seven Ways to Create a Sustainable Internet Business (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). p. 7. Auden quotation—W. H. Auden, “For the Time Being,” 1944. Thomas Davenport quotation—Cukier interview with Davenport, December 2009. The-Numbers.com—Cukier interviews with Bruce Nash, October 2011 and July 2012. [>] Brynjolfsson study—Erik Brynjolfsson, Lorin Hitt, and Heekyung Kim, “Strength in Numbers: How Does Data-Driven Decisionmaking Affect Firm Performance?”

Predictive Analytics: The Power to Predict Who Will Click, Buy, Lie, or Die
by Eric Siegel
Published 19 Feb 2013

Launching PA into action delivers a critical new edge in the competitive world of business. One sees massive commoditization taking place today, as the faces of corporations appear to blend together. They all seem to sell pretty much the same thing and act in pretty much the same ways. To stand above the crowd, where can a company turn? As Thomas Davenport and Jeanne Harris put it in Competing on Analytics: The New Science of Winning, “At a time when companies in many industries offer similar products and use comparable technology, high-performance business processes are among the last remaining points of differentiation.” Enter predictive analytics.

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To view Malcolm Gladwell’s entire speech, “Choice, Happiness and Spaghetti Sauce,” visit: Malcolm Gladwell, “Choice, Happiness and Spaghetti Sauce,” TEDTalks Online. www.ted.com/talks/malcolm_gladwell_on_spaghetti_sauce.html. Video file: www.ted.com/talks, February 2006. Davenport and Harris quote: Thomas Davenport and Jeanne Harris, Competing on Analytics: The New Science of Winning (Harvard Business School Press, 2007). “Survey results have in fact shown that a tougher competitive environment is by far the strongest reason organizations adopt this technology”: David White, “Predictive Analytics: The Right Tool for Tough Times,” Aberdeen Group White Paper, February 2010. www.aberdeen.com/aberdeen-library/6287/RA-predictive-analytics-customer-retention.aspx and www.targusinfo.com/files/PDF/outside_research/PredictiveAnalyticsReport.pdf.

The Driver in the Driverless Car: How Our Technology Choices Will Create the Future
by Vivek Wadhwa and Alex Salkever
Published 2 Apr 2017

Legal discovery is the laborious process of sifting through boxes of documents, reams of e-mails, and numerous other forms of information submitted to the court by litigants. Such tasks used to necessitate armies of junior associates. Clearwell does a far better job and has begun to obliterate an entire class of junior lawyers. As Thomas Davenport, a distinguished professor at Babson University, wrote in a column titled “Let’s Automate All the Lawyers,” in The Wall Street Journal: There are a variety of other intelligent systems that can take over other chunks of legal work. One system extracts key provisions from contracts. Another decides how likely your intellectual property case is to succeed.

Keeping Up With the Quants: Your Guide to Understanding and Using Analytics
by Thomas H. Davenport and Jinho Kim
Published 10 Jun 2013

For example, regression analysis, perhaps the most common technique in predictive analytics, is a popularly used technique in statistics, forecasting, and data mining. Also, time series analysis, a specific statistical technique for analyzing data that varies over time, is common to both statistics and forecasting. a. Thomas Davenport and Jeanne G. Harris, Competing on Analytics (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2007), 7. * * * The type of transactional data mentioned above for human resource decisions is structured (easily captured in rows and columns), quantitative, and in relatively small volumes (a terabyte or two even in large corporations).

Numbers Don't Lie: 71 Stories to Help Us Understand the Modern World
by Vaclav Smil
Published 4 May 2021

How electric motors power modern civilization Electrical devices advanced by leaps and bounds in the 1880s—the decade of the first power plants, durable lightbulbs, and transformers—but for most of the time advances in electric motors lagged behind. Rudimentary direct current (DC) motors date back to the 1830s, when Thomas Davenport of Vermont patented the first American motor and used it to run a printing press, and Moritz von Jacobi of St. Petersburg used his motors to power a small paddle-wheel boat on the Neva River. But those battery-powered devices couldn’t compete with steam power. More than a quarter-century passed before Thomas Edison finally commercialized a stencil-making electric pen to duplicate office documents; it, too, was powered by a DC motor.

Big Data at Work: Dispelling the Myths, Uncovering the Opportunities
by Thomas H. Davenport
Published 4 Feb 2014

Davenport’s clear approach will enlighten managers about the need to carefully mine these resources to improve operations and products while driving new and competitive strategies.” — Gary L. Gottlieb, MD, MBA, President and CEO, Partners HealthCare System, Inc.; Professor of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School “Thomas Davenport has supplied a smart, practical book for anyone looking to unlock the opportunities—and avoid the pitfalls—of big data.” —Rob Bearden, CEO, Hortonworks “Conversational, engaging, and an exceptional guide for decision making in the big data world. Big Data at Work offers insight to the business and technology components of a big data strategy, a path to success, and best practices from across industry sectors.”

Lab Rats: How Silicon Valley Made Work Miserable for the Rest of Us
by Dan Lyons
Published 22 Oct 2018

Technology would empower us and give us more autonomy and freedom. It could democratize the workplace and give rank-and-file workers a greater voice in how the company was run. But some started to worry—including some who had invented the new ways of working. In the 1990s Babson College business professor Thomas Davenport helped create something called business process reengineering. This was a strategy for using computer technology to restructure organizations. It was supposed to be a good thing, but when corporations embraced “reengineering,” they just used it as an excuse to fire lots of people. Davenport, who was seen as the father of reengineering, was appalled.

The Battery: How Portable Power Sparked a Technological Revolution
by Henry Schlesinger
Published 16 Mar 2010

John Quincy Adams wanted the money to go to an observatory while others argued for a national library or a college. In the end, Congress decided on a library, museum, and art gallery. Henry proved instrumental in laying the foundation of the Smithsonian, ensuring that it would endure. LONG BEFORE HENRY ARRIVED AT the Smithsonian, his work caught the attention of Thomas Davenport, a blacksmith from Brandon, Vermont. Born in 1802 into modest circumstances, Davenport was apprenticed at an early age. The apprenticeship apparently “took,” since he went into the trade and by most accounts made a good living. However, he also maintained a lifelong habit of reading and self-improvement, supplementing his spotty education, which included just three years of formal schooling.

The Fields Beneath: The History of One London Village
by Gillian Tindall
Published 1 Oct 2002

About 1780 its landlord, Thomas Wood, was advertising: A good trap-ball ground, skittle ground, pleasant summer house, extensive gardens, and every accomodation for the convenience of those who may think it proper to make an excursion to the above house during the summer months … A good ordinary on Sundays at two o’clock. Several years later Wood was still advertising his ‘larder’ in glowing terms, but appending this advertisement to a public protestation of his innocence in a recent court case. In 1785 a Sir Thomas Davenport, who had suffered a highway robbery near the Assembly House, accused Wood of having been the highwayman, on the identification evidence of his coachman. Wood was arrested, remanded in gaol tried but eventually acquitted, and two other men were hanged in his stead. However Davenport was apparently so convinced that the true villain had escaped him that he continued what amounted to a persecution campaign against Wood, who is said to have ‘died raving mad’ (in 1787) as a result of it.

More From Less: The Surprising Story of How We Learned to Prosper Using Fewer Resources – and What Happens Next
by Andrew McAfee
Published 30 Sep 2019

In 1885, Daimler and his colleague Wilhelm Maybach demonstrated their Petroleum Reitwagen, a clunky motorcycle-like machine that was the world’s first vehicle powered by internal combustion. There would be many more of them, more than a few built by the company that became Daimler-Benz, the home of Mercedes. Electric power started small, got big, then shrank again. In 1837 the Vermont blacksmith and tinkerer Thomas Davenport received a US patent for an “Improvement in Propelling Machinery by Magnetism and Electro-Magnetism.” We now call such devices for propelling machinery motors. Unfortunately for Davenport, the batteries of his time were too primitive to supply the electrical energy his device needed, and power lines, utilities, and the grid did not yet exist.

The Future of Money
by Bernard Lietaer
Published 28 Apr 2013

One day someone thought to reverse the process by asking the simple question: 'how should we organise ourselves to best take advantage of the available information technologies. Re-engineering was born. So were 'strategic layoffs'. In all fairness, such layoffs were not the intent of the original re- engineering inventors. One of the earlier pioneers was Thomas Davenport, research VP at CSC Index (the 'home' of re-engineering). In an article in First Company, Davenport reported that: 'Re-engineering did not start out as a code word for mindless corporate bloodletting. It wasn't supposed to be the last gasp of Industrial Age management. I know because I was there at the beginning.

The Costs of Connection: How Data Is Colonizing Human Life and Appropriating It for Capitalism
by Nick Couldry and Ulises A. Mejias
Published 19 Aug 2019

“It seems to me we have squeezed all the juice out of the internal information,” said the CEO of US data company Recorded Future.10 The resulting move to external data sources has changed the rationale of business while seemingly making “organizations smarter and more productive.” Human beings cannot remain unaffected since, in the words of Thomas Davenport, a leading US analyst of the data business, “Human beings are increasingly sensored,” and “sensor data is here to stay.”11 Sensors can sense all relevant data at or around the point in space where they are installed. “Sensing” is becoming a general model for knowledge in any domain, for example, in the much-vaunted “smart city.”12 Sensors never work in isolation but are connected in wider networks that cover ever more of the globe.

Hacking Capitalism
by Söderberg, Johan; Söderberg, Johan;

Maslow does not present his steps in a so straight-forward fashion, but stresses the interface of differing needs, the influence of habits on behaviour, and the overall complexity of the human brain. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1970). 3. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (London: Heinemann, 1976), 26. 4. Thomas Davenport and John Beck, The Attention Economy: Understanding the New Currency of Business (Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 2001). 5. This is best shown by Marx’s own words: “The course of social development is by no means that because one individual has satisfied his need he then proceeds to create a superfluity for himself; but rather because one individual or class of individuals is forced to work more than required for the satisfaction of its need—because surplus labour is on one side, therefore not-labour and surplus wealth are posited on the other.

Strategy: A History
by Lawrence Freedman
Published 31 Oct 2013

Slowly, or suddenly, corporate managers all over the world are learning that free enterprise these days really is free.”26 Speaking of the virtues of “radical change,” Champy described to managers the “secret satisfaction” of learning to do “what other managers in your industry thought to be impossible.” They would not only “thrive” but would also “literally redefine the industry.”27 Thomas Davenport, who had been director of research at the Boston-based Index Group, which was eventually turned into the CSC Index, was one of those closely associated with the development of the original concept. He later described how a “modest idea had become a monster” as it created a “Reengineering Industrial Complex.”

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Michael Hammer and James Champy, Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution (London: HarperBusiness, 1993), 49. 18. Peter Case, “Remember Re-Engineering? The Rhetorical Appeal of a Managerial Salvation Device,” Journal of Management Studies 35, no. 4 (July 1991): 419–441. 19. Michael Hammer, “Reengineering Work: Don’t Automate, Obliterate,” Harvard Business Review, July/August 1990, 104. 20. Thomas Davenport and James Short, “The New Industrial Engineering: Information Technology and Business Process Redesign,” Sloan Management Review, Summer 1990; Keith Grint, “Reengineering History: Social Resonances and Business Process Reengineering,” Organization 1, no. 1 (1994): 179–201; Keith Grint and P.

Competition Overdose: How Free Market Mythology Transformed Us From Citizen Kings to Market Servants
by Maurice E. Stucke and Ariel Ezrachi
Published 14 May 2020

Ethical concerns have continued to overshadow Goldman Sachs and other financial institutions.42 Such a corporate culture is toxic not only to the “muppets,” but ultimately to the company itself. Compare, for example, Goldman Sachs and Vanguard Group Inc., whose business culture the business professor Thomas Davenport found from his research represents the “anti-Goldman Sachs.” Whereas Goldman’s managing directors refer to their clients as “muppets,” Vanguard does the opposite: “People there are constantly reminding themselves that the idea is to help clients make better investment decisions at the lowest possible cost.”43 Whereas Goldman people “care only about making money,” Vanguard people “don’t seem hung up on the fact that people in other firms are more highly compensated on average; they seem to find it rewarding to know they’ve done the right thing for their customers.

Masters of Management: How the Business Gurus and Their Ideas Have Changed the World—for Better and for Worse
by Adrian Wooldridge
Published 29 Nov 2011

Covey has an MBA from Harvard Business School and a PhD in business studies; Collins started his life as a professor at Stanford Business School. However, since the turn of the century we have seen a striking new development in the world of business gurus: the rise of a subspecies of guru who have no background in either business schools or consultancies. In 2008, Thomas Davenport, a management professor at Babson College, compiled a list of the world’s most influential management thinkers for the Wall Street Journal on the basis of Google hits, media mentions, and academic citations. Only one member of the top five was a certified management guru with a PhD in business and a perch in a business school: Gary Hamel (who was ranked number one).

Radical Uncertainty: Decision-Making for an Unknowable Future
by Mervyn King and John Kay
Published 5 Mar 2020

Feynman’s excoriation of NASA’s bureaucracy provides an unmatched account of the misuse of pseudoscience to rationalise administrative decisions made in the face of radical uncertainty. This misuse of models was common to analysing spacecraft in Houston, fish stocks in Newfoundland, trams in Edinburgh and migration in Europe. Sadly, the misuse is widespread and continues. Thomas Davenport and Brook Manville constructed a series of case studies on how good decisions had been made in large organisations. 24 They begin with an analysis of how in 2009 NASA, chastened by the Challenger disaster, first postponed the launch of space shuttle STS-119 and then successfully executed it.

WTF?: What's the Future and Why It's Up to Us
by Tim O'Reilly
Published 9 Oct 2017

CHAPTER 8: MANAGING A WORKFORCE OF DJINNS 155 breakthroughs and business processes: Steve Lohr, “The Origins of ‘Big Data’: An Etymological Detective Story,” New York Times, February 1, 2013, https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/01/the-origins-of-big-data-an-etymological-detective-story/. 155 speech recognition and machine translation: Alon Halevy, Peter Norvig, and Fernando Pereira, “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Data,” IEEE Intelligent Systems, 1541–1672/09, retrieved March 31, 2017, https://static.googleusercontent.com/media/research.google.com/en//pubs/archive/35179.pdf. 156 “the sexiest job of the 21st century”: Thomas Davenport and D. J. Patil, “Data Scientist: The Sexiest Job of the 21st Century,” Harvard Business Review, October 2012, https://hbr.org/2012/10/data-scientist-the-sexiest-job-of-the-21st-century. Hal Varian had used this same phrase about statistics in 2009. See “Hal Varian on How the Web Challenges Managers,” McKinsey & Company, January 2009, http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/high-tech/our-insights/hal-varian-on-how-the-web-challenges-managers. 157 “the right values for these parameters is something of a black art”: Sergey Brin and Larry Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” Stanford University, retrieved March 31, 2017, http://infolab.stanford. edu/~backrub/google.html. 158 as many as 50,000 subsignals: Danny Sullivan, “FAQ: All About the Google RankBrain Algorithm,” Search Engine Land, June 23, 2016, http://searchengine land.com/faq-all-about-the-new-google-rankbrain-algorithm-234440. 158 “new synapses for the global brain”: Tim O’Reilly, “Freebase Will Prove Addictive,” O’Reilly Radar, March 8, 2007, http://radar.oreilly.com/2007/03/free base-will-prove-addictive.html. 158 “10 experiments for every successful launch”: Matt McGee, “BusinessWeek Dives Deep into Google’s Search Quality,” Search Engine Land, October 6, 2009, http://searchengineland.com/businessweek-dives-deep-into-googles-search-quality-27317. 159 the manual that they provide: Search Quality Evaluator Guide, Google, March 14, 2017, http://static.googleusercontent.com/media/www.google.com/en//inside search/howsearchworks/assets/search qualityevaluatorguidelines.pdf. 160 “Another big difference”: Brin and Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” Section 3.2.

Smart Grid Standards
by Takuro Sato
Published 17 Nov 2015

Section 4.4.6 introduces the standardization projects and efforts of various international/national SDOs. 4.4.2 The Rise and Fall of Electric Vehicles Several inventers are being credited as the first EV inventors. In 1828, Hungarian engineer, Ányos Jedlik, invented the EV model car. Between 1834 and 1835, Thomas Davenport, an American inventor, built a battery-powered EV, a small locomotive that was operated on a short section of tracks. Other electric car inventors around this early period include Robert Anderson of Scotland and Sibrandus Stratingh of the Netherlands. By the twentieth century, EVs were commonplace and took the majority of the market.

The Singularity Is Nearer: When We Merge with AI
by Ray Kurzweil
Published 25 Jun 2024

Henry et al., “Factors Driving Provider Adoption of the TREWS Machine Learning-Based Early Warning System and Its Effects on Sepsis Treatment Timing,” Nature Medicine 28 (July 21, 2022), 1447–54, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01895-z. BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 38 Lungren, “CheXNet and Beyond”; Rajpurkar et al., “CheXNet: Radiologist-Level Pneumonia Detection”; Irvin et al., “CheXpert: A Large Chest Radiograph Dataset with Uncertainty Labels and Expert Comparison,” AAAI-10, IAAI-19, EAAI-20; Thomas Davenport and Ravi Kalakota, “The Potential for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare,” Future Healthcare Journal 6, no. 2 (June 2019): 94–98, https://doi.org/10.7861/futurehosp.6-2-94. BACK TO NOTE REFERENCE 39 Dario Amodei and Danny Hernandez, “AI and Compute,” OpenAI, May 16, 2018, https://openai.com/blog/ai-and-compute.

The Meritocracy Trap: How America's Foundational Myth Feeds Inequality, Dismantles the Middle Class, and Devours the Elite
by Daniel Markovits
Published 14 Sep 2019

“break an organization down”: John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Witch Doctors: Making Sense of the Management Gurus (New York: Random House, 1996), 26. Hereafter cited as Micklethwait and Wooldridge, The Witch Doctors. responsible for their downsizings: See Micklethwait and Wooldridge, The Witch Doctors, 29–31; Thomas Davenport, “The Fad That Forgot People,” Fast Company, October 31, 1995, accessed November 19, 2018, www.fastcompany.com/26310/fad-forgot-people. “Overhead Value Analysis”: Terrence Deal and Allan A. Kennedy, The New Corporate Cultures (New York: Perseus, 1999), 64. excessive embrace of middle management: McKinsey argued that the midcentury approach had allowed “the number of nonproduction employees in manufacturing industry, for example, [to] increase six times as fast as that of production workers [between 1950 and 1970].”