land tenure

Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed
by James C. Scott
Published 8 Feb 1999

Modern freehold tenure is tenure that is mediated through the state and therefore readily decipherable only to those who have sufficient training and a grasp of the state statutes.63 Its relative simplicity is lost on those who cannot break the code, just as the relative clarity of customary tenure is lost on those who live outside the village. The fiscal or administrative goal toward which all modern states aspire is to measure, codify, and simplify land tenure in much the same way as scientific forestry reconceived the forest. Accommodating the luxuriant variety of customary land tenure was simply inconceivable. The historical solution, at least for the liberal state, has typically been the heroic simplification of individual freehold tenure. Land is owned by a legal individual who possesses wide powers of use, inheritance, or sale and whose ownership is represented by a uniform deed of title enforced through the judicial and police institutions of the state.

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Land invasions, squatting, and poaching, if successful, represent the exercise of de facto property rights which are not represented on paper. Certain land taxes and tithes have been evaded or defied to the point where they have become dead letters.97 The gulf between land tenure facts on paper and facts on the ground is probably greatest at moments of social turmoil and revolt. But even in more tranquil times, there will always be a shadow land-tenure system lurking beside and beneath the official account in the land-records office. We must never assume that local practice conforms with state theory. All centralizing states recognized the value of a uniform, comprehensive cadastral map.

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The existing economic activity and physical movement of the Tanzanian rural population were the consequences of a mind-bogglingly complex, delicate, and pliable set of adaptations to their diverse social and material environment.84 As in the customary land-tenure arrangements examined in chapter 1, these adaptations defy administrative codification because of their endless local variability, their elaboration, and their plasticity in the face of new conditions. If land tenure defies codification, then, it stands to reason that the connections structuring the entire material and social life of each particular group of peasants would remain largely opaque to both specialists and administrators.

The New Harvest: Agricultural Innovation in Africa
by Calestous Juma
Published 27 May 2017

Begun in 2007, the Alatona Irrigation Project will provide a catalyst for the transformation and commercialization of family farms, supporting Mali’s national development strategy objectives to increase the contribution of the rural sector to economic growth and to help achieve national food security. Specifically, it will increase production and productivity, improve land tenure security, modernize irrigated production systems, and mitigate the uncertainty from subsistence rain-fed agriculture, thereby increasing farmers’ incomes. The Alatona Irrigation Project will introduce innovative agricultural, land tenure, credit, and water management practices, as well as policy and organizational reforms aimed at realizing the Office du Niger’s potential to serve as an engine of rural growth for Mali.

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The three million hectares the government hopes to lease are essentially a modest step in Ethiopia’s effort to foster economic transformation. The Growing Economy 31 Countries that are attracting foreign investment in agriculture are also starting to focus more seriously on reforming their land tenure systems. Recognizing customary land rights and any claims by statutory land laws is a good first step. When national governments take charge of the land policy, they encourage dialogue and consultation between stakeholders and local populations. In Ghana, for example, the government has recently decreed that any lease over 50 hectares (whether the lease holder is foreign or national) must be approved by the national government.

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See greenhouse gases Cargill, 7 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 78 cassava: flour production and, 4, 198–201; food security and, 89; innovation and, 89–90; Staple Crop Processing Zones and, 6; trade in, 89, 197–98; viral diseases affecting, 79 Cassava Bread Development Policy (2012 legislative proposal in Nigeria), 199–200 Cassava Flash Dryer Project, 89–90 Cassava Transformation Agenda (Nigeria), 199 Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), 5, 93–94 Centro de Transferencia de Tecnologia a Universitarios, 181–82 Chad, 22, 254 Chile, 59 China: African projects sponsored by, 230, 245; aid to Malawi from, 9; economicagricultural linkages in, 17–18; economic growth in, 17, 188; entrepreneurship in, 186–89; food security in, 17; infrastructure in, 111–12, 120, 122–23, 144; innovation and, 45, 109–13, 233, 243–45; insect-resistant crops in, 67–68; nanoscience and, 55–56; poverty reduction in, 17; rice production in, 45, 97; Shouguang vegetable cluster in, 97–99; Spark Program in, xxiii; S&T Progress Law in, 110; technology and, 45; transgenic cotton crops in, 69; transgenic crop imports to, 66; wheat production in, 97 China Agricultural University, 97 CIMMYT (International Centre for the Improvement of Maize and Wheat), 58, 75 climate change: biotechnology as a means of addressing, 76, 79; coffee production and, 174; entrepreneurship and, 258–59; future and, 19, 36, 73, 253–60; infrastructure and, xxii, 117, 131, 142; innovation and, 102, 107, 224, 243, 253–55, 260; policy approaches to, xvi; policy challenges presented by, xx, 1, 19, 68, 73–74, 102, 257; technology and, 24, 39 Index clusters: education and, 95, 103–4, 107, 110–13, 115, 174–75; innovation and, xxi, 94–116; policy implications for development of, xviii, 105–7, 116; in small economies, 104 cocoa: innovation system for, 4–5, 92–94; international trade in, 18, 23, 92–93 Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN), 92 coffee: innovation and, 174; international markets and, 18, 23, 119, 121; price of, 27; taxsupported research centers for, 236 coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), 174 Colombia, 70 Common Fund for Commodities, 161 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA): biopolymer cluster platform program and, 57; CAADP and, 27–28, 131–32; Common Investment Area and, 34; free-trade mission of, xvii, 34; infrastructure and, 34, 131–33; innovation and, 218–19, 222, 226, 245–46, 249, 251; Innovation Council (2013) of, 222; irrigation and, 131–32; regional economic integration and, xxiii, 34, 132, 218; research innovation council of, xvii; summit (2010) of, 226 communication: clusters and, 101; COMESA and, 133; education and, 147, 156; entrepreneurship and, 183, 186; future and, 261–63; 305 infrastructure and, 34, 50–51, 261; innovation and, xxi, 37, 224, 238, 256; technology and, xxi, xxiii, 41, 45–51, 54, 115, 186, 202–4, 224, 256, 262–63 competition: clusters and, 107, 112; entrepreneurship and, 203; infrastructure and, 124, 126; innovation and, 95, 112, 247 Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme. See CAADP Congo, Democratic Republic of the: Academy of Engineering and, 231; East African Community (EAC) and, 35; hydroelectric power and, 124; land tenure system in, 32; seed exports to, 191 conservation: biodiversity and, 255–56, 259; farming techniques and, 132, 167; forests and, 228; soil and, 31; sustainability and, 11, 255–56 Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 58 Cooperative Viniculture Organization, 103 corn, 72, 81, 212 Cornell University, 71–72 Costa Rica, 157, 168 Côte d'Ivoire, 28, 34, 125 cotton: global prices of, 69; innovation and, 4–5, 45, 64–65, 67; international markets in, 23, 119; pest-resistant varieties of, 65, 67; seed prices and, 70; transgenic varieties of, 64–65, 67, 69–70 “creative destruction” (Schumpter), 11 CRIN (Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria), 92 306 Index crop quality: Africa in international context, 20–21; climate change and, 36, 61, 256; diversification and, 211–13; entrepreneurship and, 189–92; genetically modified crops and, 62; genetic engineering and, 62–63; Green Revolution and, 13, 68; innovation and, 53; irrigation and, 141 culture: clusters and, 96–97, 101; economic-agricultural linkages and, 162; of innovation, 222–23 Czech Republic, 66 Dais Analytic Corporation, 55–56 Dakar Conference (2000), 150 Dangote, Aliko, 4 deforestation, 16 Democratic Republic of Congo.

Rethinking the Economics of Land and Housing
by Josh Ryan-Collins , Toby Lloyd and Laurie Macfarlane
Published 28 Feb 2017

Smith, Alice Stoakes, and Gavin Wood. 2009. ‘Mortgage Equity Withdrawal in Australia and Britain: Towards a Wealth-Fare State?’ European Journal of Housing Policy 9 (4): 365–89. Patten, Simon N. 1891. ‘Another View of the Ethics of Land-Tenure’. International Journal of Ethics 1 (3): 354–70. Payne, Geoffrey. 2004. ‘Introduction: Habitat International Special Issue on Land Tenure and Property Rights.’ Habitat International 28: 167–79. Pearce, Robert D., and Roger Stearn. 2000. Government and Reform: Britain 1815–1918. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Persaud, Avinash. 2016. ‘Breaking the Link between Housing Cycles, Banking Crises, and Recession’.

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Special purpose vehicle (SPV) – An entity set up, usually by a financial institution, for the specific purpose of purchasing the assets and realising their off-balance-sheet treatment for legal and accounting purposes. Tenure – The legal form under which land is owned, occupied and used. Private ownership of land has risen to become the dominant form of land tenure around the world but many alternatives exist that support collective as well as individual ownership of land and resources. Wholesale money markets – Refers to the lending and borrowing of large quantities of liquid assets in a range of currencies, generally between financial institutions such as banks, as well as non-financial companies and the government.

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Many countries have retained layered forms of landownership, like the English freehold/leasehold system. Around the world a huge range of tenure models, including many collective forms of ownership and use rights, continue to thrive, and remain a key subject of anthropological study and political controversy (Payne, 2004). In all this rich diversity of land tenure, one key fact stands out: the structure of landownership is not natural, but is a matter of law and custom, and hence is inherently political. Compared to owning other assets, such as gold, controlling land over time requires a high degree of social acceptance of that control. Unsurprisingly, a large proportion medieval law concerned land use, tenure, trading, ownership and inheritance – demonstrating both the central importance of land use in the economy, and the legal nature of it.

Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action
by Elinor Ostrom
Published 29 Nov 1990

The famous "enclosure acts" of British history have been presented in many history books as the rational elimination of an obviously inefficient institution that had been retained because of an unthink­ ing attachment to the past for an overly long time. Recent economic historians, however, have provided an entirely different picture of English land-tenure systems before the enclosure acts and even of the process of gaining enclosure itself (Dahlman 1980; Fanoaltea 1988; McCloskey 1976; Thirsk 1959, 1967). Many of the manorial institutions share broad similarity with the long-endur­ ing institutions described in this chapter: a clear-cut definition of who is authorized to use common resources; definite limits (stinting) on the uses that can be made; low-cost enforcement mechanisms; local rule-making arenas to change institutions over time in response to environment and economic changes.

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Headmen to carry out any work may sound very fine, but, practically, the results are small, unless the Headmen be encouraged and supported by the Assistant Agent taking an active interest in their efforts; if the villagers see this and know that once they agree to any undertaking, everyone must contribute and that no shirking is allowed, all will combine cheerfully to carry out the work. But endless watching and numerous inspections are necessary." 14 Water meetings of this type have occurred in Sri Lanka for centuries (Gun­ asekera 1981). See the discussion of these institutions by Uphoff (1983). 15 The earlier land-tenure system in some parts of Sri Lanka had greatly reduced the level of conflict between head-enders and tail-enders, on the smaller tanks at least. The fields to be irrigated from a tank were laid out and assigned in 239 Notes to pp. 164-9 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 such a way that each farmer was assigned one block of land to farm in the top third of the area to be irrigated, another block in the middle section, and one block in the lower section.

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Common Property Resources and Rural Poor in Dry Regions of India. Economic and Political Weekly 21:1169-81. Johnson, D., and D. Anderson, eds. 1988. The Ecology of Survival: Case Studies from Northeast African History. London: Crook. Johnson, O. E. G. 1972. Economic Analy~is, the Legal Framework and Land Tenure Systems. journal of Law and Economics 15:259-76. Johnson, R. N., and G. D. Libecap. 1982. Contracting Problems and Regulation: The Case of the Fishery. American Economic Review 72: 1005-22. Kahneman, D., and A. Tversky. 1979. Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk. Econometrica 47:263-91.

Owning the Earth: The Transforming History of Land Ownership
by Andro Linklater
Published 12 Nov 2013

,” wrote George McBride, a pioneer of the Green Revolution in Mexico, “you lay bare the very foundations upon which its society is based, and reveal the fundamental character of many of its institutions.” The answer led the Soviet Union to break up privately owned farms and establish collectives on state-owned land in the 1930s, and drove the United States in the 1940s to promote democracy in Japan by forcibly destroying “the undemocratic land tenure system” and redistributing it to owner-occupiers. “We believe in the family-size farm,” President Harry S. Truman declared in 1950. “That is the basis of our agriculture and has strongly influenced our form of government.” Throughout the Cold War, the struggle between capitalism and Communism in Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East was shaped by the Harringtonian belief that once land was either privately owned or state-owned, the politics would follow suit.

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At a meeting of Latin American states at Punta del Este, Uruguay, in 1961, it called for latifundias to be replaced by “an equitable system of property” and for the introduction of a system of “integral agrarian reform leading to the effective transformation, where required, of unjust structures and systems of land tenure and use.” This declaration not only exhibited the core values of the United States, it incorporated the sense of justice and ownership that, as Guevara himself had recognized, really motivated Latin America’s campesinos. But its implementation faced a crucial obstacle. Land reform could be said to have been the one constant in all the political convulsions of Latin American politics.

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Marx’s own research was heavily based on the lectures of Henry Sumner Maine, on “The History of Institutions,” delivered in 1875, and influenced by Lewis Morgan’s Ancient Society or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization (New York: Henry Holt, 1877). “In the five previous centuries”: A Guide to Early Irish Law, ed. Fergus Kelly (Dublin: Institute for Advanced Studies, 1988), ch 1. W. E. Montgomery, The History of Land Tenure in Ireland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1889), 26–41, http://archive.org/stream/historyoflandten00montrich#page/ii/mode/2up. “The land shall not be sold for ever”: Leviticius 25:23. The jubilee fell out of favor: Leviticus 25:10, 13. “A jubilee shall that fiftieth year be to you ... in the year of this jubilee you shall return every man to his possession”; the idea of the land as a gift to his chosen people so that Israel could only be realized by returning to cultivate once more permeated nineteenth-century Zionist thought; thus Rabbi Zevi Hirsch Kalischer, writing in 1863: “there will be four redemptions.

Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy
by Francis Fukuyama
Published 29 Sep 2014

While there were peasant revolts accompanying the increasing commercialization of agriculture in Japan both before and after the Meiji Restoration, they did not reach a level that was sufficient to breed a nationwide uprising.24 Less convincing is Moore’s effort to relate rural land tenure to the rise of the militarist governments of the 1930s. He wants to draw parallels between Japan and Prussia, a country whose military was indeed implicated in the increasingly repressive system of agrarian land tenure from the sixteenth century on. The Prussian officer corps was recruited directly from the class of Junker landlords who in civilian life were busy repressing their own peasants. But in Japan, feudal land tenure was already being replaced by freer forms of tenancy and commercial agriculture by the late nineteenth century.

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Mahmood Mamdani has gone further, to charge that the tyrannical postindependence Big Man was largely the product of the “decentralized despotism” created by indirect rule. The British had two long-term economic policy objectives that indirect rule was meant to serve. First, they sought to convert customary land tenure into modern property rights, at the behest of both commercial agricultural interests and white settlers. Modern property rights are formal, freely alienable, and held by individuals or by legal entities operating as individuals. As elaborated in Volume 1, customary land tenure is a complex informal system of private property rights, sometimes mistakenly said to be communal in the sense of a Communist collective farm. Traditional customary property is intimately connected with the kinship system and heavily entailed by kin obligations; individuals usually are not free to alienate their holdings.15 The chief in particular does not have any right to alienate land.

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While customary property in this sense once existed in barbarian Europe, the feudal property rights that prevailed in the European Middle Ages were more modern in the sense of being formal, contractual, and individual. Moving from a customary to a modern land tenure system was therefore much more revolutionary than the shift from feudal to modern land tenure in Europe; it involved huge changes within the authority structure of the kin groups involved. When colonial authorities sought to buy land from customary owners, they found no one actually in charge who had the authority to alienate property. One reason to create a subordinate tribal chief under indirect rule was to empower an African equivalent of a European feudal lord who had the authority to alienate communal property into a modern property rights system.16 A second reason for empowering indigenous chiefs was to serve as tax collectors.

The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time
by Karl Polanyi
Published 27 Mar 2001

Cultural degradation can be stopped only by social measures, incommensurable with economic standards of life, such as the restoration of tribal land tenure or the isolation of the community from the influence of capitalistic market methods. “Separation of the Indian from his land was the ONE death blow,” writes John Collier in 1942. The General Allotment Act of 1887 “individualized” the Indian’s land; the disintegration of his culture which resulted lost him some three quarters, or ninety million acres, of this land. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 reintegrated tribal holdings, and saved the Indian community, by revitalizing his culture. The same story comes from Africa. Forms of land tenure occupy the center of interest, because it is on them that social organization most directly depends.

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The Revolution of 1917–24 was indeed the last of the political upheavals in Europe that followed the pattern of the English Commonwealth and of the French Revolution; the revolution that started with the collectivization of the farms, about 1930, was the first of the great social changes that transformed our world in the thirties. For the first Russian Revolution achieved the destruction of absolutism, feudal land tenure, and racial oppression—a true heir to the ideals of 1789; the second Revolution established a socialist economy. When all is said, the first was merely a Russian event—it fulfilled a long process of Western development on Russian soil—while the second formed part of a simultaneous universal transformation.

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To remove land from the market is synonymous with the incorporation of land with definite institutions such as the homestead, the cooperative, the factory, the township, the school, the church, parks, wild life preserves, and so on. However widespread individual ownership of farms will continue to be, contracts in respect to land tenure need deal with accessories only, since the essentials are removed from the jurisdiction of the market. The same applies to staple foods and organic raw materials, since the fixing of prices in respect to them is not left to the market. That for an infinite variety of products competitive markets continue to function need not interfere with the constitution of society any more than the fixing of prices outside the market for labor, land, and money interferes with the costing-function of prices in respect to the various products.

Arrival City
by Doug Saunders
Published 22 Mar 2011

Kironde, “Understanding Land Markets in African Urban Areas: The Case of Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania,” Habitat International 24 (2000). 25 Robert E. Smith, “Land Tenure Reform in Africa: A Shift to the Defensive,” Progress in Development Studies 3, no. 3 (2003). 26 A. Antwi and J. Adams, “Economic Rationality and Informal Urban Land Transactions in Accra, Ghana,” Journal of Property Research 20, no. 1 (2003); M. M. Omirin and A. Antwi, “Informality, Illegality and Market Efficiency: A Case for Land Market Deregulation in Accra and Lagos” (London, 2004). 27 R. Home and H. Lim, Demystifying the Mystery of Capital: Land Tenure and Poverty in Africa and the Caribbean (London: Glasshouse Press, 2004); Bishwapriya Sanyal, “Intention and Outcome: Formalization and Its Consequences,” Regional Development Dialogue 17, no. 1 (1996). 28 Staffan Granér, “Hernando de Soto and the Mystification of Capital,” Eurozine, no. 13 (Jan. 19, 2007): 6. 29 Donald A.

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For those peasants who have found solid roots, home ownership, and thriving businesses in the arrival city, “the lack of such arrangements makes them unwilling or unable to give up their rural land, which, in turn, makes it difficult for those left in rural areas to expand their scale of agricultural production and secure their land tenure because too little extra land can be released to accommodate rural demographic changes.”11 The “hollow village,” as these rural enclaves of children and grandparents are known in China, has become a global phenomenon, as subsistence farming is forced to serve as a substitute for a proper social safety net.

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For the first time, they were seen as a major threat to the city’s well-being and a potential key political constituency. For the arrival-city residents, the constant, burning issue was the scarcity of livable land (and, in Bombay, the concept of “livable” has always been stretched to human limits) and the struggle to hold on to it. This was really an issue of land tenure and housing policy, but it was easily recast by Shiv Sena leaders as one of inter-ethnic competition. In the early 1970s, the party made its first major moves into the slums. It organized its rural-migrant dadas (shaka leaders, or literally “big brothers”) and sent them out to encroach on public land—both to create new arrival-city enclaves for the Maharashtrian villagers entering Bombay and also for the developers of middle-class housing blocks, who now had to pay the Shiv Sena to obtain it.

The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution
by Francis Fukuyama
Published 11 Apr 2011

Plaintiffs preferred to have their cases taken to the royal courts, and over time the seigneurial courts lost their jurisdiction over land tenure disputes to them.30 This market-driven preference suggests that the royal courts must have been perceived as being fairer and less biased in favor of the local lords, and better able to enforce their decisions. A similar shift did not occur in other European countries. In France, in particular, seigneurial courts retained their jurisdiction over land tenure issues right up to the French Revolution. This is ironic, in a sense, since it was seventeenth-century French kings such as Louis XIII and Louis XIV who were perceived, in contrast to their English counterparts, as having emasculated the nobility in their assertion of absolute power.

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The parliaments of PNG and the Solomons have no coherent political parties; they are full of individual leaders, each striving to bring back as much pork as possible to his or her narrow base of supporters.4 Melanesia’s tribal social system limits economic development because it prevents the emergence of modern property rights. In both Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, upward of 95 percent of all land is held in what is known as customary land tenure. Under customary rules, property is private but held informally (that is, with no legal documentation) by groups of kinfolk, who have both individual and collective rights to different strips of land. Property has not only an economic but also a spiritual significance, since dead relatives are buried in certain spots on the wantok’s land, and their spirits continue to inhabit that place.

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In an influential article, Garrett Hardin argued that the tragedy of the commons exists with respect to many global resources, such as clean air, fisheries, and the like, and that in the absence of private ownership or strong regulation they would be overexploited and made useless.3 In many contemporary ahistorical discussions of property rights, one often gets the impression that in the absence of modern individual property rights, human beings always faced some version of the tragedy of the commons in which communal ownership undermined incentives to use property efficiently.4 The emergence of modern property rights was then postulated to be a matter of economic rationality, in which individuals bargained among themselves to divide up the communal property, much like Hobbes’s account of the emergence of the Leviathan out of the state of nature. There is a twofold problem with this scenario. The first is that many alternative forms of customary property existed before the emergence of modern property rights. While these forms of land tenure may not have provided the same incentives for their efficient use as do their modern counterparts, very few of them led to anything like the tragedy of the commons. The second problem is that there aren’t very many examples of modern property rights emerging spontaneously and peacefully out of a bargaining process.

The White Man's Burden: Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good
by William Easterly
Published 1 Mar 2006

Based on many current practices, however, that career could easily be found abroad ‘helping’ transition countries with the same process.45 Titling Toward Confusion in Kenya Lord Lugard, the architect of British colonial rule in Africa, said land tenure follows “a steady evolution, side by side with the evolution of social progress.” This “natural evolution” leads to “individual ownership.” The Native Land Tenure Rules of 1956 privatized land in Kenya, advertising it as “a normal step in the evolution of a country,” under which “energetic or rich Africans will be able to acquire more land.” The anthropologist Parker Shipton, one of the few outsiders who bothered studying the region in detail, looked at the consequences of land titling for the Luo tribe in western Kenya in the early 1980s.46 The traditional system among the Luo was a complicated maze of swapping plots among kin and seasonal exchanges of land for labor and livestock.

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Martin’s Press, 2002, pp. 162–63. 11.John Iliffe, Africans: The History of a Continent, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 198. 12.Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, pp. 79, 41. 13.Iliffe, Africans, p. 201. 14.Ibid., p. 201. 15.Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 53. 16.Iliffe, Africans, p. 201. 17.Mamdani, Citizen and Subjects, p. 52. 18.Ibid., pp. 54–56. 19.Iliffe, Africans, p. 200. 20.Ibid., p. 199. 21.Ibid., pp. 251–52. 22.Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, p. 161. 23.Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer, “History, Institutions, and Economic Systems: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India,” MIT mimeograph, October 2004; Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, pp. 278–79; and Ravina Daphtary, “Systems of Land Tenure in Bengal: The Unyielding Legacy of the Zamindar,” NYU undergraduate thesis, April 2005. 24.Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, pp. 280–83. 25.Bergner, Land of Magic Soldiers, p. 29. 26.P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2000, 2d ed., Harlow, UK: Longman, Pearson Education, 2002, p. 83. 27.Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power, New York: Basic Books, 2004, p. 116. 28.Ibid., p. 141. 29.Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 291. 30.Ferguson, Empire, p. 22. 31.Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 291. 32.James, Rise and Fall, p. 175. 33.Angus Maddison, “The World Economy: Historical Statistics,” Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2003. 34.Cain and Hopkins, British Imperialism, p. 308. 35.Iliffe, Africans, p. 204. 36.Ibid., p. 212. 37.Ibid., p. 222. 38.Ibid., pp. 203–4. 39.Maddison, “World Economy.” 40.Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 158. 41.Bergner, Land of Magic Soldiers, p. 97. 42.Scott, Seeing Like a State, pp. 226–28. 43.Thayer Watkins, “The Tanganyikan Groundnuts Scheme,” San José State University Economics Department, at http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/ groundnt.htm. 44.Maddison, World Economy.” 45.Ibid.

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What looks like opportunistic behavior could be the mingling of private property with traditional values, which place obligations to kin above those to strangers or banks. By imposing land titling on such complex social customs, “private property rights” may actually increase the insecurity of land tenure rather than decrease it. Perhaps chastened by these experiences, formal land law in Kenya is now moving back toward recognizing customary rights. The government is allowing the paper titles to lapse.47 Reformers who want to increase the security of property rights have to search for what works in each locality.

Planet of Slums
by Mike Davis
Published 1 Mar 2006

In Guldin's case study of southern China, he found that the 22 Census 2001, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India; and Alain Durand-Lasserve and Lauren Royston, "International Trends and Country Contexts," in Alain Durand-Lasserve and Lauren Royston (eds), HoldingT heir Ground: Secure Land Tenure for the Urban Poor in Developing Countries, London 2002, p. 20. 23 Mbuji-Mayi is the center of the "ultimate company state" in the Kaasai region run by the Societe Mini ere de Bakwanga. See Michela Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr. KurtLiving on theBrink of Disaster in the Congo, London 2000, pp. 121-23. 24 Miguel Villa and Jorge Rodriguez, "Demographic Trends in Latin America's Metropolises, 1950-1990," in Alan Gilbert (ed.), The Mega-City in Latin America, Tokyo and New York 1996, pp. 33-34. 

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He speaks of "trillions of dollars, all ready to put to use if only we can unravel the mystery of how assets are transformed into live capital."32 Ironically, de Soto, the Messiah of people's capitalism, proposes little more in practice than what the Latin American Left or the Communist Party of India (Marxist) in Kolkata had long fought for: security of tenure for informal settlers. But tiding, as land-tenure expert Geoffrey Payne points out, is a double-edged sword. "For owners it represents their formal incorporation into the official city, and the chance to realize what may be a dramatically increased asset. For tenants, or those unable to pay the additional taxes that usually follow, it may push them off the housing ladder altogether."

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"The high rate of inflation and the massive scale of devaluation," writes political economist Kwadwo Konadu-Agyemang of Accra, "have discouraged savings and made investment in undeveloped or 43 Ibid. As the authors emphasize, "despite the importance of the topic, data on urban land-ownership are extremely rare. This contrasts sharply with research on land tenure in rural areas." (p. 184) 44 Berner, Defending a Place, p 21. 45 Baken and van der Linden, Land Delivery for Low Income Groups in Third World Cities, p 13. 46 Brennan, "Urban Land and Housing Issues Facing the Third World," p. 78. partially developed land the safest and most profitable way of holding assets that could also be sold in foreign currency."47 The result has been the emergence or persistence of property bubbles amidst otherwise general economic stagnation or even decline.

Land: How the Hunger for Ownership Shaped the Modern World
by Simon Winchester
Published 19 Jan 2021

Reformers may try until they are blue in the face to suggest that the simple fact of ownership brings with it a vast catalogue of the benefits of capitalism—and yet the chief will sigh and thank the visitor for his time and will insist that the traditional system of land tenure, whereby he, just like his predecessors for generations past, grants the rights of tenancy to his tribesmen, works perfectly well, and all are content. But, the reformer will protest—the insecurity? All are content, the chief insists, and the matter is closed. Tribal land tenure, coupled with slash-and-burn agriculture and nomadic behaviors—the last more common among those tribes living closer to the continent’s western and northern deserts, where water supplies are fitful and settled farming is more risky—still dominates the landscape of much of sub-Saharan Africa.

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The days of lairds—of which there had been ten, Clanranald to Maruma—were now formally and finally over. The island and its 8000 acres, dominated by a high ridge of obsidian visible from miles around and known as the Sgurr, was now owned principally by its inhabitants. Now at last, with the laird gone, the old Scottish system of feudal land tenure, so unfair to so many, so favored for a few—with some of the more impossibly micromanaging previous lairds specifying, for example, which if any of the island’s many varieties of seaweed could be eaten by their tenants—was to be ended forever. There was a blaze of publicity in the months and years immediately following the ownership change, not all of it good.

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An ancient Chinese arrangement of tenancy—now much revived and corrupted—whereby a farmer may have a thirty-year lease on a tract of land and after supplying the state with an agreed amount of foodstuffs may retain any surplus for himself. The rules, laid down by the vaguely formed local party collective, allowed for all manner of venality, and have enriched many officials and aided in the creation of vast cities clawed from the Chinese countryside. CIFTLIK. A system of land tenure in later Ottoman times, by which Turkish military commanders seized territory and ruled the local peasantry as serfs. It replaced the ancient and rather more liberal Timar system (qv). CLEARANCE. Applied most commonly to Scottish moorland, this often cruelly imposed Victorian-era policy was designed to clear the countryside of unprofitable crofters and replace them with sheep, from which the landlords could expect a more considerable and reliable income.

Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire
by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri
Published 1 Jan 2004

For a more general view, see David Goodman and Michael Redclift, From Peasant to Proletarian: Capitalist Development and Agrarian Transitions (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1982). 31 See, for example, on the history of pre-peasant land tenure in Vietnam, Ngo Vinh Long, “Communal Property and Peasant Revolutionary Struggles in Vietnam,” Peasant Studies 17, no. 2 (Winter 1990): 121-40. For similar histories of Sub-Saharan Africa, see Enwere Dike, “Changing Land Tenure Systems in Nigeria,” Peasant Studies 17, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 43-54; and J. S. Saul and R. Woods, “African Peasantries,” in Teodor Shanin, ed., Peasants and Peasant Societies , 2nd ed., (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), 80-88. 32 There is considerable debate whether the term peasantry ever did in fact accurately describe such systems of small-holding production, especially in Africa.

…

The historical tendency of the changes in class composition of the peasantry through the modern era reduces dramatically the numbers of the middle peasantry, corresponding to the centrifugal conceptual tendency in Mao’s analysis. At the top end a few rich peasants manage to gain more land and become indistinguishable from landowners, and at the bottom most poor peasants tend to be excluded from their traditional forms of land tenure (such as sharecropping) and become simple agricultural laborers. Middle peasants all but vanished in the process, being forced to fall one way or the other along the general cleavage of ownership. This centrifugal historical tendency corresponds to the processes of modernization in both its capitalist and socialist forms.

…

Land reform, which was a liberal and revolutionary battle cry in Latin America throughout the twentieth century, from Zapata’s ragged troops to guerilla revolutionaries in Nicaragua and El Salvador, held something like the figure of the middle peasant as its goal. Aside from a few brief exceptions, most notably in Mexico and Bolivia, the tendency in Latin America has constantly moved in the opposite direction, exacerbating the polarization of land tenure and ownership.33 Throughout the subordinated capitalist world small-holding agricultural producers are systematically deprived of land rights as property is gradually consolidated into large holdings, controlled either by national landowners or mammoth foreign corporations.34 This process may appear as a haphazard and undirected movement carried out by an extended and disunited series of agents, including national governments, foreign governments, multinational and transnational agribusiness corporations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and many others.

More: The 10,000-Year Rise of the World Economy
by Philip Coggan
Published 6 Feb 2020

Steve Kummer and Christian Pauletto, “The History of Derivatives: A Few Milestones”, EFTA Seminar on Regulation of Derivatives Markets, May 3rd 2012, Zurich. A derivative is a contract whose value derives from the price of another asset. 34. John P. Powelson, The Story of Land: A World History of Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform 35. Jursa, The Cambridge History of Capitalism, Volume 1, op. cit. 36. Standage, Edible Humanity, op. cit. 37. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: A Short History of a Revolutionary Idea 38. Powelson, The Story of Land, op. cit. 39. Kostas Vlassopoulos, “Greek Slavery: From Domination To Property And Back Again”, Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 131, 2011 40.

…

A hectare is 2.47 acres. 7. Federico, Feeding the World, op. cit. 8. 2012 Census of Agriculture, https://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Online_Resources/Highlights/Farms_and_Farmland/Highlights_Farms_and_Farmland.pdf 9. Shimelles Tenaw, K.M. Zahidul Islam and Tuulikki Parviainen, “Effects of land tenure and property rights on agricultural productivity in Ethiopia, Namibia and Bangladesh”, University of Helsinki, 2009 10. See Frank Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe 1958–1962; or Anne Applebaum, Red Famine: Stalin’s War on Ukraine 11. Radelet, The Great Surge, op. cit. 12.

…

On the theory and measurement of financial intermediation”, September 2014, http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~tphilipp/papers/Finance_Efficiency.pdf Philipsen, Dirk The Little Big Number: How GDP Came to Rule the World and What to Do about It, Princeton University Press, 2015 Piketty, Thomas Capital in the 21st Century, Harvard University Press, 2014 Pilling, David Bending Adversity: Japan and the Art of Survival, Penguin, 2014 —— The Growth Delusion: The Wealth and Well-Being of Nations, Bloomsbury, 2018 Pinker, Steven The Better Angels of Our Nature: A History of Violence and Humanity, Penguin, 2011 —— Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism and Progress, Viking, 2018 Pollard, Sidney Peaceful Conquest: The Industrialization of Europe, 1760–1970, Oxford University Press, 1981 Pomeranz, Kenneth The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World, Princeton University Press, 2000 Portes, Jonathan “How small is small? The impact of immigration on UK wages”, National Institute of Economic and Social Research, January 17th 2016 Powelson, John P. The Story of Land: A World History of Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 1988 Prawdin, Michael The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy, George Allen & Unwin, 1967 Pye, Michael The Edge of the World: How the North Sea Made Us, Pegasus Books, 2016 Radelet, Steven: The Great Surge: The Ascent of the Developing World, Simon & Schuster, 2016 Razzell, Peter, and Spence, Christine “Social capital and the history of mortality in Britain”, International Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 34, no. 2, 2005 Read, Charles “British economic policy and Ireland c. 1841–1845”, unpublished University of Cambridge PhD thesis, 2017 Reid, Michael Forgotten Continent: The Battle for Latin America’s Soul, Yale University Press, 2007 Rhodes, Richard Energy: A Human History, Simon & Schuster, 2018 Romer, Paul “Increasing returns and long-term growth”, Journal of Political Economy, vol. 94, no. 5, 1986 Ronson, Jon So You’ve Been Publicly Shamed, Picador, 2015 Rosenberg, Nathan Exploring the Black Box: Technology, Economics, and History, Cambridge University Press, 1994 Rosling, Hans, Rosling, Ola, and Rosling Rönnlund, Anna Factfulness: Ten Reasons We’re Wrong About the World – And Why Things Are Better Than You Think, Sceptre, 2018 Russell, Andrew L.

The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry From Crop to the Last Drop
by Gregory Dicum and Nina Luttinger
Published 1 Jan 1999

In a nutshell, they cannot produce more, because they cannot afford it, and they cannot afford it because they do not produce more.5 Lack of access to credit coupled with geographic isolation means farmers depend on middlemen to provide them with credit—at exorbitant interest rates—and to bring their product to market. Worse, land tenure systems in many tropical nations are stacked heavily against the rural poor. In those countries that endured colonialism, traditional indigenous land-tenure systems were supplanted by top-down structures that gave land rights to the government or to rich, often absentee—and often foreign—landlords. This state of affairs means that small farmers must pay for the use of their own land or be shut out from working their land entirely and serving instead as laborers for others.

Revolution at Point Zero: Housework, Reproduction, and Feminist Struggle
by Silvia Federici
Published 4 Oct 2012

This type of program was imposed by the World Bank and the IMF on most African countries starting in the early 1980s, allegedly to spur economic recovery and help the African governments pay for the debts that they had contracted during the previous decade in order to finance development projects. Among the reforms it prescribes are land privatization (starting with the abolition of communal land tenure), trade liberalization (the elimination of tariffs on imported goods), the deregulation of currency transactions, the downsizing of the public sector, the de-funding of social services, and a system of controls that effectively transfers economic planning from the African governments to the World Bank and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).5 This economic restructuring was presumably meant to boost productivity, eliminate inefficiency and increase Africa’s “competitive edge” on the global market.

…

First, war forces people off the land, i.e., it separates the producers from the means of production, a condition for the expansion of the global labor market. War also reclaims the land for capitalist use, boosting the production of cash crops and export-oriented agriculture. Particularly in Africa, where communal land tenure is still widespread, this has been a major goal of the World Bank, whose raison d’etre as an institution has been the capitalization of agriculture.12 Thus, it is hard today to see millions of refugees or famine victims fleeing their localities without thinking of the satisfaction this must bring to World Bank officers as well as agribusiness companies, who surely see the hand of progress working through it.

The New Enclosure: The Appropriation of Public Land in Neoliberal Britain
by Brett Christophers
Published 6 Nov 2018

Title: The new enclosure : the appropriation of public land in neoliberal Britain / Brett Christophers. Description: London ; Brooklyn, NY : Verso, 2018. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018029054| ISBN 9781786631589 | ISBN 9781786631602 (United Kingdom e-book) Subjects: LCSH: Public lands--Great Britain. | Land tenure--Great Britain. | Public land sales--Great Britain. Classification: LCC HD596 .C477 2018 | DDC 333.1/30941--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018029054 Typeset in Adobe Garamond Pro by MJ&N Gavan, Truro, Cornwall Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY To Cole Harris, and to the memory of Doreen Massey Contents List of Figures List of Abbreviations Acknowledgements Introduction 1.A Special and Finite Commodity: Why Land and Landownership Matter 2.Landownership in Britain: A Brief History 3.Discourses of Surplus and Efficiency: Preparing the Land for Sale 4.Carrots and Sticks: Privatizing the Land 5.False Promises: Land Privatization Outcomes Conclusion: Where Now?

…

Associated with the land question more intimately than any other leading politician of his era, Lloyd George’s famous Land Campaign of 1913 was stoked by rural depopulation and the continuing tragic social fallout from enclosure; it drew, as Matthew Cragoe and Paul Readman note, on ‘roseate views of the pre-enclosure past’; and it argued, inter alia, for a minimum wage for agricultural workers, further reforms of land tenure laws, and the introduction of land-value taxation.1 After World War I, Lloyd George ‘returned to “the land”’ in order, in Ian Packer’s words, to ‘revivify Liberalism’. Among other things, he introduced legislation to enable local authorities to acquire land more readily to establish smallholdings.2 By 1926, the English council-farming estate already occupied 177,265 hectares – nearly 1.5 per cent of England’s total land area.3 Land was acquired in the countryside for a range of other reasons, too.

…

Block, ‘Introduction’ in Polanyi, Great Transformation, pp. xviii–xxxviii, at p. xxvi. 3 Neutze, ‘Tale of Two Cities’, p. 190. Chapter 2: Landownership in Britain: A Brief History 1 ‘Mayor Calls for Power to Unlock London’s Housing Potential’, press release, 14 July 2014, at london.gov.uk. 2 Speech to the Inaugural Public Meeting of the Land Tenure Reform Association, London, 15 May 1871, at libertyfund.org. 3 K. Cahill, Who Owns Britain (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2001), p. 27. 4 Ibid. 1 D. Massey and M. Rustin, ‘Whose Economy? Reframing the Debate’, Chapter 7 of S. Hall, D. Massey and M. Rustin, eds, After Neoliberalism? The Kilburn Manifesto (London: Soundings, 2015), p. 2. 1 Land Registration Act 2002, at legislation.gov.uk. 1 R.

The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity
by David Graeber and David Wengrow
Published 18 Oct 2021

‘hunter-gatherers do not have aristocracies’), then protect it from any possible counter-examples by continually changing the definition. We prefer a consistent approach. Foragers are populations which don’t rely on biologically domesticated plants and animals as their primary sources of food. Therefore, if it becomes apparent that a good number of them have in fact possessed complex systems of land tenure, or worshipped kings, or practised slavery, this altered picture of their activities doesn’t somehow magically turn them into ‘proto-farmers’. Nor does it justify the invention of endless sub-categories like ‘complex’ or ‘affluent’ or ‘delayed-return’ hunter-gatherers, which is simply another way of ensuring such peoples are kept in what the Haitian anthropologist Michel-Rolph Trouillot called the ‘savage slot’, their histories defined and circumscribed by their mode of subsistence – as if they were people who really ought to be lazing around all day, but for some reason got ahead of themselves.44 Instead, it means that the initial assertion was, like that of the apocryphal Hamish McDonald, simply wrong.

…

In his 1875 Lectures on the Early History of Institutions, Henry Sumner Maine – who held the first chair of historical and comparative jurisprudence at Oxford – was already discussing cases of periodic land redistribution and rundale-type institutions from India to Ireland, noting that almost up until his own day, ‘cases were frequent in which the arable land was divided into farms which shifted among the tenant-families periodically, and sometimes annually.’ And that in pre-industrial Germany, where land tenure was apportioned between ‘mark associations’, each tenant would receive lots divided among the three main qualities of soil. Importantly, he notes, these were not so much forms of property as ‘modes of occupation’, not unlike the rights of access found in many forager groups.4 We could go on piling up the examples (the Palestinian mash’a system, for instance, or Balinese subak).5 In short, there is simply no reason to assume that the adoption of agriculture in more remote periods also meant the inception of private land ownership, territoriality, or an irreversible departure from forager egalitarianism.

…

In every case, the apparatus of government stood on top of some kind of division of society into classes. But as we’ve seen in earlier chapters, these elements could just as well exist without or prior to the creation of central government – and even when such government was established, they could take very different forms. In Mesopotamian cities, for instance, social class was often based on land tenure and mercantile wealth. Temples doubled as city banks and factories. Their gods might only leave the temple grounds on festive occasions, but priests moved in broader circles, making interest-bearing loans to traders, watching over armies of female weavers and jealously guarding their fields and flocks.

The Trouble With Billionaires
by Linda McQuaig
Published 1 May 2013

John Stuart Mill, the nineteenth-century British political philosopher best known for his writings in defence of individual liberty, also argued, particularly in his later years, for a recognition of the important role society plays in individual earnings. Mill noted that it was society, not just individual effort or labour, that determined what a person was able to do or create, and that society was morally entitled to receive due compensation for its contribution. In 1870, for instance, Mill was involved in the founding of the Land Tenure Reform Association, considered an important step in the evolution of modern social welfare philosophy. While arguing that private ownership of land might be desirable to achieve optimal production, Mill, in his draft of the association’s programme, insisted that increases in land values caused by the general growth and development of society properly belonged ‌to the community at large.14 Mill extended this approach to increases in values of all sorts of property that are caused by factors having nothing to do with the contributions of the individual property holder.

…

See also Steve Hamm & Jay Greene, ‘The Man Who Could Have Been Bill Gates’, BusinessWeek, 25 October 2004. ‌2 Evans, They Made America, pp. 402–19. ‌3 James Essinger, Jacquard’s Web (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 37. ‌4 Ibid., p. 249. ‌5 Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), pp. 81–102. ‌6 Gar Alperovitz & Lew Daly, Unjust Deserts (New York: The New Press, 2008), p. 58. ‌7 Ibid., pp. 59–61. ‌8 Ibid., p. 60. ‌9 Cited in ibid., p. 63. ‌10 Robert M. Solow, ‘Growth Theory and After’, Nobel lecture, 8 December 1987, http://www.nobelprize.org. ‌11 Herbert A. Simon, ‘UBI and the Flat Tax’, Boston Review, October/November 2000. ‌12 Cited in Alperovitz & Daly, Unjust Deserts, p. 36. ‌13 Ibid., p. 96. ‌14 John Stuart Mill, ‘Land Tenure Reform’, Collected Works, vol. 5 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967), p. 691. ‌15 John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, vol. 2, book 2, chapter 1, section 3, p. 208. ‌16 L. T. Hobhouse, Liberalism and Other Writings, James Meadowcroft (ed.), (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 91–2. ‌17 Frank E.

Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion
by Gareth Stedman Jones
Published 24 Aug 2016

The age-old ‘village system’ based upon the ‘domestic union of agricultural and manufacturing pursuits’ was being ‘dissolved’, ‘not so much through the brutal interference of the British tax-gatherer and the British soldier, as to the working of English steam and English free trade’. British rule was bringing the advantages of political unity, European science, a European trained army, a free press, British-trained civil servants, the abolition of the old system of common-land tenure and a shorter passage between India and England. If the revolution depended upon the social transformation of Asia, England ‘was the unconscious tool of history in bringing about that revolution’.176 Despite what Dana called ‘the Indian War’, Karl’s thinking was not deeply affected by the Indian Mutiny.

…

But this focus on production had not proved an adequate guide either to a full understanding of the economy, or to the construction of a tenable politics based upon it. Other forms of radicalism and socialism were proving more flexible. In England, more attention was paid to inequalities of distribution, and the political domination of the landed class. The aim of Mill’s Land Tenure Reform Association and of the Land and Labour League, both founded in 1869, was to contest this dominance.77 In France, the Saint-Simonians had contested more broadly the right of inheritance. Among the socialists, the followers of Owen and Proudhon emphasized the defects of circulation, a system based upon ‘buying cheap and selling dear’.

…

As in the Grundrisse, the starting point of Karl’s depiction of circulation in the draft of Volume II was that of the circular or spiral progression of capital, which through its own momentum dissolved previous economic forms and produced workers and capitalists on an ever-increasing scale. The particular aim of the analysis was to connect the emergence of commodity production in Book I with the transition from feudal or other pre-capitalist forms of land tenure to capitalist ground rent in Book III. But how could a necessary connection be established between the abstract depiction of the extended reproduction of capital and the actual historical expansion of capitalist relations? The version of Volume II which Engels published in 1885 presented Karl’s writings on this question as a series of consecutive chapters.

Unfinished Empire: The Global Expansion of Britain
by John Darwin
Published 12 Feb 2013

If necessary, they should be watched by a system of spies.35 In times of difficulty, they were expected to form ‘loyal’ associations.36 Indeed, in such a localized system, a great deal depended on the collector’s skill and energy in manipulating the multiple sources of political influence. To do his job properly, remarked the Madras government, the collector had to be very active. ‘He must make himself acquainted with the languages, dispositions and circumstances of the people; the various descriptions of land tenures; the sources from which the public revenues are drawn’ and the means to enlarge them.37 From 1796 onward, proficiency in one of a province’s main languages became a condition for promotion to collector. Collectors were also expected to tour their districts for up to four months a year, to show the flag and keep an eye on their Indian subordinates.

…

Collectors were also expected to tour their districts for up to four months a year, to show the flag and keep an eye on their Indian subordinates. In most of the provinces, there were periodic reassessments of the land tax to be paid. This required a village-by-village, field-by-field survey by a British ‘settlement officer’. These settlement reports, with their mass of information about fertility, crops, land tenures and population, remain a prime source for India’s social history. Sheer bureaucratic persistence was thus a key explanation for the success of British rule in overcoming the barriers of ignorance and foreignness. Of course, the British officials were far from displaying a machine-like efficiency.

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Glenelg was Secretary of State for the Colonies. 44. Ibid, p. 36: J. Stephen to Colonization Commissioners, 27 October 1836. 45. J. Hall-Jones, John Turnbull Thomson: First Surveyor-General of New Zealand (Dunedin, 1992), p. 30. 46. E. Liebenberg, ‘The Mapping of South Africa 1813–1912’, in T. R. H. Davenport (ed.), History of Surveying and Land Tenure: Collected Papers, vol. 2 (Cape Town, 2004), p. 75. 47. For an excellent study based on New Zealand, G. Byrnes, Boundary Markers: Land Surveying and the Colonisation of New Zealand (Wellington, 2001). 48. Quoted in ibid., p. 24. 49. For a description of the technique, A. E. J. Andrews, Major Mitchell’s Map, 1834: The Saga of the Survey of the Nineteen Counties (Hobart, 1992), p. 9. 50.

The World's Banker: A Story of Failed States, Financial Crises, and the Wealth and Poverty of Nations
by Sebastian Mallaby
Published 24 Apr 2006

There were no good data to support this view—in fact, growth does reduce poverty.38 But there was an emotional need for new approaches after years in which growth targeting had failed to put an end to human misery; and there was an accurate sense that the postwar emphasis on dams and factories had involved a basic error. The way to enrich a peasant may not be to move him to a steel mill, it was now realized; it may be to give him better seeds, advice on agricultural techniques, or land tenure. In 1970, Peru’s left-wing government launched a radical land redistribution program, to broad applause from development thinkers; on the other side of the world, India’s Indira Gandhi built an election campaign on a promise to fight poverty directly. Meanwhile in the United States and Europe, redistributive ideas dominated the countercultural movement that had risen up in opposition to the Vietnam War, and similar notions percolated through the salons and the conference circuit.

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Perhaps the most impressive recent claim of this genre comes from Hernando de Soto, a Peruvian economist, who points out that the poor often lack legal title to their land. Change that, de Soto says, and you give them collateral, and therefore a chance to borrow money and start small businesses.7 But although de Soto’s insight is important, land tenure is not a silver bullet. If the poor gain land title but women remain downtrodden, for example, half of all adults will not actually gain access to capital, and population pressure will not abate either. There are similar problems with another kind of selectivity proposal. In a Foreign Affairs article published in 1997, Steven Radelet and Jeffrey Sachs of the Harvard Institute for International Development agreed that a lot of things have to go right simultaneously for development to take off; but they suggested it might be a mistake to try to achieve this on a national level.

…

Within a few years, one of the world’s greatest export booms created millions of new jobs, despite the fact that China’s national institutions were frequently rotten with corruption.8 Yet the enclave argument, for all its persuasiveness, raises its own set of questions. What good are export zones if corrupt national institutions lay you open to financial meltdown? And if national institutions are corrupt, won’t national politicians be tempted to extract bribes from supposedly uncorrupt enclaves? Rather like Hernando de Soto’s land tenure idea, enclaves might start you down the road toward development. But in the end you can’t duck the question of national governance, however daunting it might be. Because neither the kick-start theories nor the enclave arguments are fully convincing, Wolfensohn was right that the Bank should be comprehensive.

Empire of Cotton: A Global History
by Sven Beckert
Published 2 Dec 2014

Eventually they decided that wage labor did not work, with one of the planters stating categorically that “cultivation by paid labor could, under no circumstances, be profitably applied to Cotton in that part of the country.”57 The experiences in India indeed seemed to confirm cotton’s dependence on coercion. Yet slavery, manufacturers began to understand, could not be completely trusted. And since manufacturers’ own capital and their own institutions were insufficient to create alternative systems, they turned to the state: They demanded new laws regarding land tenure to secure investments in cotton. They demanded even more investment in experimental farms and the accumulation of agricultural knowledge, more state investment in infrastructure, and a tax on the cultivators that would not discourage cotton growers from investing and improving the quantity and quality of their crops.

…

Along the same lines, the Manchester Chamber of Commerce called a special meeting in July 1862 regarding the supply of cotton from India, demanding “that public aid be given for this object by forwarding such public works as will facilitate the production and transport of cotton to the port of shipment, such as works of irrigation, roads, or railways, and by amending and perfecting the Laws of Contract and Land Tenure.” Manufacturers and colonial bureaucrats, faced with the cotton famine, became increasingly impatient with the workings of the market. As the superintendent of the Cotton Gin Factory in the Dharwar Collectorate reported in May 1862, while “we are strongly impressed with the belief, that, as a general rule, it is not judicious to interfere by legislative enactments in matters connected with trade, but looking to the circumstances of the present case,…to the immense importance of the questions at the present time affecting not only local, but national, interests, and to the apparent inefficiency of the present law, we are forced to the conviction that exceptional and more stringent legislation is necessary.”

…

As an anonymous British writer on Indian cotton explained, “Where there is no intelligent population to lead the way, a Government must do what in more civilized countries can safely be left to private enterprise.”49 The creation of private property in land became yet another state-led project, in India and elsewhere. British cotton manufactures, demanding that the colonial government “set its colonial house in order,” called for new forms of land tenure, as they perceived the old system of communal ownership as “obstructive to the rights of individual ownership, and to its effective cultivation.” They saw private property in land as a precondition for increasing production of cotton. Individuals were to gain clear title in land that then could be bought, sold, rented, or mortgaged.

Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India
by Shashi Tharoor
Published 1 Feb 2018

The British, Ferguson wrote, combined commerce, conquest, and some ‘evangelical imperialism’ in an early form of globalization—or, in a particularly infelicitous word, ‘Anglobalization’—and in so doing Britain bequeathed to a large part of the world nine of its most distinctive and admirable features, the very ones that had made Britain great: the English language, English forms of land tenure, Scottish and English banking, the common law, Protestantism, team sports, the ‘night watchman’ state, representative assemblies, and the idea of liberty. The last of these, he tells us, is ‘the most distinctive feature of the Empire’ since ‘whenever the British were behaving despotically, there was always a liberal critique of that behaviour from within British society’.

…

Fielding-Hall, Passing of the Empire, London: Hurst & Blackett, 1913, p. 134. ‘a society of little societies’: Wilson, India Conquered, p. 14. ‘Areas in which proprietary rights in land’: See, for instance, Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer, ‘History, Institutions, and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India’, The American Economic Review, Vol. 95, No. 4, 2005, pp. 1190–1213. ‘We may be regarded as the spring which’: Forrest, 1918, p. 296. William Bolts, a Dutch trader…wrote in 1772: Bolts, 1772, p. vi. ‘Of all human conditions, perhaps the most brilliant’: Dalrymple, ‘The East India Company’.

American Foundations: An Investigative History
by Mark Dowie
Published 3 Oct 2009

Twenty-five years into the Green Revolution, the downside of a supply-driven Cold War strategy had become all too clear. As the revolution progressed it became increasingly evident that even technologies that improved the lot of small farmers benefited large farmers even more. Thus the inequities grew. A few social scientists realized that genuine improvement would come only when laws and policies concerning land tenure, credit, prices, and other factors disproportionately affecting the poor were addressed. But, like population control, these were considered politically risky issues, particularly in countries where landholding interests were strongly represented in national legislatures. "Focusing narrowly on increased production cannot alleviate hunger," Institute for Food and Development co-founder Frances Moore Lappe and colleagues reminded philanthropists, "because it fails to alter the tightly concentrated distribution of economic power, especially access to land and purchasing power.

…

Thus no coherent social critique of the Green Revolution was developed until the early 1960s, when the negative impact of its grantmaking and strategy had become so patently obvious that even Rockefeller scientists couldn't ignore it. It was, in fact one of their own, Donald Freebairn, a staffer at CIMMYT, who first raised questions of equity and land tenure in a voice that earned attention. Nonetheless, Freebairn's request for permission to attend a 1959 Montevideo conference on land problems was denied. "We appreciate the importance of these problems in the Latin American countries," reads the response from Freebairn's superior, A. H. Moseman. "But it would seem desirable for members of our staff to avoid becoming directly involved in these fields in a manner that might impair the effectiveness of our cooperative activities."36 Freebairn was not the only Rockefeller scientist aware of the social situation in developing countries.

Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World
by Niall Ferguson
Published 1 Jan 2002

When the British governed a country – even when they only influenced its government by flexing their military and financial muscles – there were certain distinctive features of their own society that they tended to disseminate. A list of the more important of these would run: The English language English forms of land tenure Scottish and English banking The Common Law Protestantism Team sports The limited or ‘night watchman’ state Representative assemblies The idea of liberty The last of these is perhaps the most important because it remains the most distinctive feature of the Empire, the thing that sets it apart from its continental European rivals.

…

But colonization was intended as the answer to the country’s chronic instability. Since Henry VIII’s proclamation of himself as King of Ireland in 1541, English power had been limited to the so-called ‘Pale’ of earlier English settlement around Dublin and the beleaguered Scottish fort of Carrickfergus. In language, religion, land tenure and social structure, the rest of Ireland was another world. There was, however, a danger: Roman Catholic Ireland might be used by Spain as a back door into Protestant England. Systematic colonization was adopted as the remedy. In 1556 Mary allocated confiscated estates in Leix and Offaly in Leinster to settlers who established Philips-town and Maryborough there, but these were little more than military outposts.

Year 501
by Noam Chomsky
Published 19 Jan 2016

“Instead of building from existing democratic institutions which, on paper, were quite impressive and had long incorporated the liberal democratic philosophy and governmental machinery associated with the French Revolution, the United States blatantly overrode them and illegally forced through its own authoritarian, antidemocratic system.” “The establishment of foreign-dominated plantation agriculture necessitated destruction of the existing minifundia land-tenure system with its myriad peasant freeholders,” who were forced into peonage. The US supported “a minority of collaborators” from the local elite who admired European fascism but lacked the mass appeal of their fascist models. “In effect,” Schmidt observes, “the Occupation embodied all the progressive attitudes of contemporary Italian fascism, but was crippled by failures in human relationships” (lack of popular support).

…

Again, the advanced civilization of the Indians stood in the way of civilization, properly conceived. What followed is described by Angie Debo in her classic study And Still the Waters Run. In the independent Indian Territory, land was held collectively and life was contented and prosperous. The Federal Indian Office opposed communal land tenure by ideological dogma, as well as for its practical effect: preventing takeover by white intruders. In 1883, a group of self-styled philanthropists and humanitarians began to meet to consider problems of the Indians. Their third meeting was addressed by Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, considered a “distinguished Indian theorist,” who had just concluded a visit of inspection to the Indian Territory.

Water: A Biography
by Giulio Boccaletti
Published 13 Sep 2021

When the Jewish diaspora began: Botero et al., “The Ecology of Religious Beliefs.” 5 The Politics of Water Dorian tribes swept in to replace Achaean ones: Drake, “The Influence of Climatic Change on the Late Bronze Age Collapse.” By the twelfth century BCE, the Mycenaean civilization: Chadwick, The Mycenaean World, 188. Agriculture reverted to subsistence: Morris, “Economic Growth in Ancient Greece.” In Work and Days: Hansen, The Other Greeks, 27. These were all symptoms: Gallant, “Agricultural Systems, Land Tenure, and the Reforms of Solon.” In Homer’s Odyssey: Homer, Odyssey, 543. It was the age of the polis: Crouch, Geology and Settlement: Greco-Roman Patterns, 380. In the seventh century BCE, people fled: Herodotus, The Histories, 291. In fact, the combined effect: J. D. Hughes, Environmental Problems of the Greeks and the Romans, 111.

…

Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 1996. Foxhall, Lin. Olive Cultivation in Ancient Greece: Seeking the Ancient Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. French, Alf. “The Economic Background to Solon’s Reforms.” Classical Quarterly 1956 (May 1956): 11–25. Gallant, Thomas W. “Agricultural Systems, Land Tenure, and the Reforms of Solon.” Annual of the British School at Athens 77 (November 1982): 111–24. García, Erik V. “The Maya Flood Myth and the Decapitation of the Cosmic Caiman.” PARI Journal 7 (Summer 2006): 1–10. Gardner, Lloyd C. Three Kings: The Rise of an American Empire in the Middle East After World War II.

China: A History
by John Keay
Published 5 Oct 2009

Especially marked in the north, where emigration continued to take a heavy toll, depopulation induced victorious regimes ‘to place greater value on the control of persons than the control of territory’ and to treat cultivators as the spoils of war.31 Large numbers were indeed resettled, usually within reach of the capital; but many decamped at the slightest provocation, and as the pace of conquest slowed, so did the supply of new settlers. To increase the agricultural yield, the Northern Wei would have to devise inducements and incentives for the cultivator, including a permanent and equitable system of land tenure. Vouchsafed a longer dominion than any of their post-Han predecessors, the Northern Wei had ample time to acclimatise politically and to experiment. As under previous regimes, Buddhism served as a source of legitimisation and as a bridge over the ethnic divide between non-Chinese and Chinese. But it was also harnessed more directly to the interests of the state.

…

Once again the long-forgotten nomenclature of Zhou times was resurrected; edicts were issued in the archaic Chinese of that period and all officials compelled to learn it; a handy catechism comprising the Six Articles of the new dispensation had also to be memorised by heart; and the ‘equal-fields system’ of land tenure, though introduced by the Northern Wei, was retained as a fair approximation to the ancient ‘well-field’ grid of equal peasant holdings. Naturally Buddhism and Daoism were frowned on and both were eventually proscribed. Whether such affectations endeared the foreign elite to their Chinese subjects is, however, doubtful; for when the duke of Sui, a member of that elite, rose against the Northern Zhou in 581, one of his first moves would be to reject the whole exercise.

…

Japan proved especially popular; it was not just nearer than Europe or America but, thanks to its Confucian heritage and Chinese script, intellectually more accessible. The Japanese model of modernisation also had much to recommend it. There the monarchy continued to be revered but had been reduced to constitutional status by the introduction of a parliamentary structure. Land tenure had been reformed, education redirected and heavy industries developed. ‘Rich Country, Strong Army’ being the slogan, a centralised government had forged national solidarity by giving the highest priority to the economy and the military. It had paid off in the Sino-Japanese war over Korea in 1894, and it was vindicated again when in 1904–5 a Russo-Japanese war broke out over concessions in both Korea and Manchuria.

Investment: A History
by Norton Reamer and Jesse Downing
Published 19 Feb 2016

McIntosh, Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005), 3, 62–65, and 349–350; Van De Mieroop, Ancient Mesopotamian City, 146–147. 3. Benjamin Foster, “A New Look at the Sumerian Temple State,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24, no. 3 (October 1981): 226–227. 4. Maria deJ Ellis, Agriculture and the State in Ancient Mesopotamia: An Introduction to the Problems of Land Tenure, Occasional Publications of the Babylonian Fund 1 (Philadelphia: University Museum, 1976), 10. 5. Foster, “Sumerian Temple State,” 226. 6. W. F. Leemans, “The Role of Landlease in Mesopotamia in the Early Second Millennium b.c.,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18, no. 2 (June 1975): 136. 7.

…

Ellis, Charles D., and James R. Vertin. True Stories of the Great Barons of Finance. Vol. 2 of Wall Street People. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003. Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Knopf, 2004. Ellis, Maria deJ. Agriculture and the State in Ancient Mesopotamia: An Introduction to the Problems of Land Tenure. Occasional Publications of the Babylonian Fund 1. Philadelphia: University Museum, 1976. Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage.” Accessed January 2015. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516233/Margaret -Olivia-Slocum-Sage. ——. “Married Women’s Property Acts.” Accessed January 2015. http:// w w w. b r i t a n n i c a . c o m / E B c h e c k e d / t o p i c / 3 6 6 3 0 5 / M a r r i e d -Womens-Property-Acts. ——.

Scots and Catalans: Union and Disunion
by J. H. Elliott
Published 20 Aug 2018

It is not, therefore, surprising to find improving landlords among them. 55 Yet improvement, for all its potential agrarian benefits, also meant social dislocation, as developments on the Argyll estates were to show. The second duke, an enthusiastic improving landlord, was always in need of money, and enthusiastically set about revolutionizing the system of land tenure on his properties. When ‘tacks’, or leases, fell vacant they no longer went automatically to clan followers, but were auctioned off to the highest bidder, who would pay a substantially raised rent. The old tacksmen found themselves displaced, to the detriment of old-style clanship and vassalage.

…

INDEX Aberdeen: Philosophical Society, (i) academies, (i) ; see also universities Acció Catalana, (i) Act Rescissory (Scotland, 1661), (i) Act for the Security of the Protestant Religion and the Government of the Church (England, 1706), (i) Adam brothers (architects), (i) afrancesados , (i) agriculture: in Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; in Scotland, (i) , (ii) ; in Spain, (i) Álava, (i) Alba: as term for Scotland, (i) ; Scots take over from Picts, (i) Alburquerque, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 7th Duke of, (i) Alcalá, Fernando Enríquez Afán de Ribera, 3rd Duke of, (i) Alcalá Zamora, Niceto, (i) Alexander II, King of Scotland, (i) Alexander III, King of Scotland, (i) Alexander, Sir William: An Encouragement to Colonies , (i) Alfonso V, King of Aragon, (i) Alfonso V, King of Portugal, (i) Alfonso X (the Wise), King of Castile and León, (i) Alfonso XII, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Alfonso XIII, King of Spain: childhood, (i) ; accession and rule, (i) ; receives petition for Catalan autonomy from Cambó, (i) ; supports Catalan claim for independence, (i) ; exiled, (i) Alien Act (England, 1705), (i) , (ii) Almansa, battle of (1707), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Almirall, Valentí, (i) , (ii) ; Lo Catalanisme , (i) Amadeo of Savoy, King of Spain, (i) Amat y Junient, Manuel de, (i) Amelot, Michel-Jean, (i) America (New World): incorporated into Crown of Castile, (i) , (ii) ; Scottish immigrants, (i) , (ii) ; trade with Catalonia, (i) ; and trade rivalry, (i) ; see also empires, Spanish American Revolution, (i) , (ii) anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ANC see National Assembly of Catalonia, (i) Andalusia, (i) Aner d’Esteve, Felip, (i) Angevin Empire, (i) Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921), (i) Anglo-Scottish Union: debated under JamesVI/I, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; debated under William III and Anne, (i) , (ii) ; see also home rule; Treaty of Union (Anglo-Scottish, 1707); union, forms of Anjou, Philip, Duke of see Philip V, King of Spain Anne, Queen: succession and death, (i) , (ii) ; and acceptance of Treaty of Union, (i) Aragon, Crown of: and dynastic union with Castile, (i) , (ii) ; Catalan-Aragonese federation, (i) ; Succession crisis and Compromise of Caspe (1410–12), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; and Spanish Atlantic expansion, (i) ; and Castilian dominance, (i) ; population (16th century), (i) ; constitution, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; royal absenteeism, (i) ; union with Castile, (i) , (ii) ; customs barriers with Castile, (i) ; geographical and linguistic divisions, (i) ; fails to support Catalonia in 1640 rebellion, (i) ; supports Don Juan José, (i) ; and Spanish succession, (i) ; Nueva Planta, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; form of representation in Spanish Cortes, (i) ; fiscal and monetary uniformity with Castile, (i) ; (i) ; historiography, (i) ; Archive of, (i) ; see also Aragon, kingdom of; Catalonia; Mallorca; Valencia Aragon, kingdom of: union with Castile, (i) , (ii) ; Catalan-Aragonese federation, (i) , (ii) ; oath of allegiance, (i) ; Ferdinand as king of, (i) , (ii) ; rebellion in defence of fueros (1590–1), (i) ; and the Indies (i) ; Olivares and, (i) ; Philip V abolishes laws and privileges, (i) , (ii) ; resists French invasion, (i) ; see also Aragon, Crown of Aragon, Council of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Arbroath, Declaration of (1320), (i) , (ii) Argathelians (followers of Argyll), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 8th Earl of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of, (i) Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 10th Earl ( later 1st Duke) of, (i) , (ii) Argyll, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Aribau, Bonaventura Carles: ‘Ode to the Pàtria ’, (i) army, British, (i) , (ii) , (iii) army, Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) army, English, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; New Model, (i) , (ii) army, French, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) army, James II’s, (i) army, Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) army, Spanish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) , (ix) , (x) , (xi) , (xii) , (xiii) ; Riego’s mutiny (1820), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; (army of Flanders), (i) ; (army of Africa), (i) , (ii) Arrimadas, Inés, (i) Arthur, King (mythical), (i) Arthur, Prince (son of Henry VII), (i) Asquith, Herbert Henry, (i) Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights, (i) Asturias: miners’ strike (1934), (i) Ateneu Català, (i) Atlantic: Scottish and Catalan trade, (i) , (ii) ; rival traders in, (i) ; see also America Attlee, Clement, (i) Audiencia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Augereau, General Pierre, (i) austracistas , (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Austria: union with Spain opposed by British and Dutch, (i) Austro-Hungarian Empire see empires, Austro-Hungarian Autonomy, Statutes of (Catalan), (i) ; (1979), (i) ; (2005), (i) , (ii) Azaña, Manuel, (i) , (ii) Aznar, José Maria, (i) Bacon, Francis: A Brief Discourse touching the Happy Union of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland , (i) Balaguer, Victor: ‘History of Catalonia and the Crown of Aragon’, (i) Ballot, Josep Pau, (i) Balmes, Jaume, (i) Banco de España, (i) banditry and lawlessness: in Scottish Highlands and Catalonia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) banking crisis (global, 2007–8), (i) Bannockburn, battle of (1314), (i) Barbour, John: The Bruce , (i) Barceló, Pere Joan (‘Carrasclet’), (i) Barcelona: as mercantile city, (i) ; recaptured from Moors (801), (i) ; surrenders to Philip IV (1652), (i) , (ii) ; conflict with Perpinyà, (i) ; sanctions against after surrender, (i) ; French capture (1687), (i) ; urbanization, (i) , (ii) ; in War of Spanish Succession, (i) ; resists Philip V’s occupation and surrenders (1714), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Ciutadella (fortress), (i) , (ii) ; repressed by Philip V, (i) ; regidores , (i) ; University, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; ‘honoured citizens’ and oligarchical power, (i) ; population increase, (i) , (ii) ; shipbuilding, (i) ; trading rights, (i) ; Palau de la Virreina, (i) ; design and conditions, (i) ; Acadèmia de Bones Lletres, (i) ; occupied by French in Napoleonic Wars, (i) ; industrialization, (i) , (ii) ; cholera epidemics, (i) ; compared with Glasgow, (i) ; merchants, (i) ; Ateneu Barcelonès, (i) ; as cultural centre, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Liceu, (i) ; liberalism, (i) ; industrial unrest, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; economic power, (i) ; Eixample, (i) ; urban development and street names, (i) ; Universal Exhibition (1888), (i) , (ii) ; as capital of Catalonia, (i) ; and internal Catalan differences, (i) ; Setmana Tràgica (tragic week, 1909), (i) ; World Fair (1929), (i) ; and October Revolution (1934), (i) ; in Spanish Civil War, (i) ; football, (i) ; Olympic Games (1992), (i) ; demonstration against Constitutional Tribunal ruling (2010), (i) ; ‘march towards independence’ (2012), (i) ; terrorist attack (August 2017), (i) ; see also Catalonia Barcelona province, (i) Barceloneta, (i) Barnett, Joel, (i) Bases of Manresa ( Bases de Manresa , 1892), (i) , (ii) Basque Nationalist Party, (i) Basque provinces: and war with France, (i) ; industrialization, (i) , (ii) ; participation in central administration, (i) ; autonomy, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; fiscal exemptions, (i) , (ii) ; racial singularity, (i) ; Cambó visits, (i) ; nationalist movement, (i) ; join Pact of San Sebastián, (i) ; settlement (1975), (i) , (ii) ; in decentralized Spain, (i) ; relations with Spanish state, (i) Batet i Mestres, General Domènec, (i) Belgium: Puigdemont flees to, (i) Berwick, James Fitzjames, Duke of, (i) , (ii) Berwick, Treaty of (1639), (i) Bill of Rights (England, 1689), (i) Bishops’ Wars (1639–40), (i) Black Death, (i) Blair, Tony, (i) , (ii) Bloody Assizes (1685), (i) Bodin, Jean, (i) , (ii) Boece, Hector: History of the Scottish People , (i) Bofarull, Antoni de: ‘Deeds and Memories of the Catalans’, (i) Bofarull, Pròsper de, (i) Bolshevism, (i) Bonaplata cotton mill, (i) , (ii) Borders (Scottish): violence in, (i) , (ii) ; see also Scotland Bosch Gimpera, Pere, (i) Boswell, James, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Bosworth, battle of (1485), (i) Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of, (i) Bounty Act (British, 1742), (i) Bourbon dynasty: and Spanish royal succession, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; administration in Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; protectionist legislation in Catalonia, (i) ; nation-building, (i) bourgeoisie, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Braç (Estate) of nobles, (i) Brexit (British exit from EU), (i) Britain see Great Britain Brown, Gordon, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Bruce, Robert, King of Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Brussels: Puigdemont supporters demonstrate in, (i) Brutus (mythological figure), (i) , (ii) Buchanan, George: De jure regni apud Scotos , (i) Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop of Salisbury, (i) Burns, Robert, (i) Bute, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of, (i) , (ii) cadastre ( catastro ), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Cadiz: as Atlantic trading port, (i) ; Riego’s rising (1820), (i) Cadiz, Cortes of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) Callaghan, James, (i) , (ii) Cambó, Francesc, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Cameron, David, (i) , (ii) Cameron, Richard (and Cameronians), (i) Campaign for a Scottish Assembly, (i) Campbell Clan, (i) , (ii) ; and see Argyll Canada: becomes self-governing (1867), (i) ; and Quebec independence campaign, (i) Canadenca (industrial strike), (i) Cánovas del Castillo, Antonio, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Capmany, Antoni de, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; La centinela contra franceses , (i) Cardona, ducal family, (i) Caribbean see West Indies Carlists and Carlism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Carlos, Don (Spanish pretender), (i) Carlos II, King of Spain: treatment of Catalonia, (i) ; ill health and death, (i) ; Feliu de la Peña dedicates book to, (i) ; death and succession question, (i) Cartagena, Alfonso de, (i) Casanova, Rafael, (i) , (ii) Caspe, Compromise of (1412), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Castaños, Francisco Javier, (i) Castile: and dynastic unification of Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; united with Léon (1230), (i) ; conquest of Navarre, (i) ; incorporation of Indies, (i) , (ii) ; dominance, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; foundation myth, (i) ; equates itself with Spain, (i) ; population (16th century), (i) ; customs barriers with Crown of Aragon, (i) , (ii) ; rejects idea of Spanish nationality, (i) ; economic strain, (i) ; Olivares’s administration and reforms, (i) ; nobility intermarries with other regions, (i) ; Cortes of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; and Catalan rebellion (1640–52), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; overpowered by French, (i) ; monetary fluctuations, (i) ; resists foreign invaders, (i) ; landowning elite, (i) ; see also Spain Castile, Council of, (i) , (ii) Catalan Assembly (1971), (i) Catalan Corporation of Radio and Television, (i) Catalan National Assembly, (i) ‘Catalanism’, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Cataló, Otger (legendary figure), (i) , (ii) Catalonia: recent independence movement, (i) ; as nation without state, (i) ; foundation, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; geographical divisions, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; population, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; federation with Aragon, (i) , (ii) ; Pyrenean region, (i) , (ii) ; socio-economic conditions in 15th century, (i) ; chronicles and history, (i) ; domination by Castile, (i) , (ii) ; conflict (1588), (i) ; religion in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; sense of patria , (i) see also patria , patriotism; banditry and lawlessness, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; unrest on accession of Philip IV, (i) ; nobles marry into Castilian nobility, (i) ; rejects Olivares’s proposals for Union of Arms, (i) ; alienation from Aragon, (i) ; alienated Crown lands, (i) ; rebellion (1640), (i) , (ii) ; as French protectorate (1641), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Estates, (i) , (ii) ; plague (1650), (i) , (ii) ; secession ends (1652), (i) ; French, immigrants in, (i) ; consequences of failed rebellion, (i) , (ii) ; revolt of the barretines (1688–9), (i) ; troops billeted in, (i) , (ii) ; export trade and traders, (i) , (ii) ; textile industry, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; depends on Castile for financial and military assistance, (i) ; and accession of Philip V, (i) ; in War of Spanish Succession, (i) , (ii) ; popular anti-French feelings, (i) ; occupied by Philip V’s forces, (i) ; and Peace of Utrecht, (i) ; disaster of 1714, (i) , (ii) ; under Philip V’s rule, (i) ; Nueva Planta extended to, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; loss of representative institutions, (i) ; royal army garrisoned in, (i) ; taxation system, (i) , (ii) ; administrative reorganization, (i) ; universities, (i) , (ii) ; language differences, (i) ; lacks sovereign status, (i) , (ii) ; rebellion (1719), (i) ; oligarchical control and honoured citizens in, (i) ; substantial peasant farmers, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; seigneurial and feudal rights, (i) ; military coercion in, (i) ; response to incorporation, (i) ; urbanization, (i) ; prospective independence after Treaty of Utrecht, (i) ; social and economic changes (18th century), (i) ; stable monetary system, (i) ; overseas trade, (i) , (ii) ; industrialization, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) ; personal industriousness and strong family ties, (i) , (ii) ; rural and agrarian life, (i) ; trade with overseas empire, (i) , (ii) ; merchants and clerics in America, (i) ; restricted opportunities for overseas appointments, (i) ; identity and differences from Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Enlightenment, (i) ; harvest failures and food shortages (1790s), (i) ; occupied and annexed by French in Napoleonic Wars, (i) , (ii) ; guerrilla warfare against French, (i) ; and Constitution of Cadiz (1812), (i) ; divided into four provinces, (i) ; sense of deliberate discrimination, (i) ; Ferdinand VII visits, (i) ; insurrection (1822), (i) ; liberalism (1820–3), (i) ; romanticized history, (i) ; little part in developing empire, (i) ; increasing political nationalism (post–Great War), (i) , (ii) ; bourgeoisie, (i) ; historiography, (i) , (ii) ; resists Spanish centralization, (i) ; dependence on Madrid for protection of industry, (i) ; sense of grievance ( greuge ), (i) , (ii) ; growing independence (late 19th century), (i) ; represented in Madrid government, (i) ; and Cuban struggle for independence, (i) ; federalist sentiments, (i) ; regionalism and claims to autonomy, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; economy declines (late 19th century), (i) ; nationalist movement, (i) , (ii) ; conscripts called up to fight in Morocco, (i) ; and Mancomunitat, (i) ; under Primo de Rivera’s regime, (i) , (ii) ; joins Pact of San Sebastián, (i) ; Macià proclaims ‘Catalan State’, (i) ; as autonomous region under 1932 Spanish Constitution, (i) , (ii) ; nationalist upsurge (1930s), (i) ; in Spanish Civil War, (i) ; Franco abolishes statute of autonomy, (i) ; repression under Franco, (i) ; economic and social changes (1960s), (i) ; immigration, (i) ; and statute of autonomy (1979, revised 2006), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; under parliamentary monarchy, (i) ; state-building under Pujol, (i) , (ii) ; bilingualism, (i) ; coalition government and programme for new autonomy, (i) ; diada (national day), (i) ; economic depression (2007–14), (i) ; interest in Scottish referendum on independence, (i) ; division between secessionists and anti-secessionists, (i) , (ii) ; illegal referendum (2014), (i) ; proposal and calls for independence referendum (autumn 2017), (i) ; propaganda campaign for independence, (i) ; threat of losing membership of EU, (i) ; conduct of 2017 referendum, (i) ; parliament decides on unilateral declaration of independence, (i) , (ii) ; post-referendum election (December 2017), (i) ; disunity among independence advocates, (i) ; consequences of independence decision, (i) ; major political parties lose support, (i) ; Romantic revivalism, (i) ; psychological characteristics, (i) ; economic resources, (i) ; and inadequate dialogue with Spain, (i) ; see also Constitutions; Diputació; education; language catastro ( cadastre ), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Catholics, Catholicism see Church of Rome Cecil, William (Baron Burghley), (i) Cecily, Queen of James III of Scotland, (i) CEDA (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas), (i) Centelles, (i) Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias, (i) Centre Català , (i) , (ii) Cerdà, Ildefons, (i) Cerdanya, northern ( comtat ), (i) Cervera: university of, (i) , (ii) Charlemagne, Emperor of the West, (i) , (ii) Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, (i) ; as King of Spain, (i) , (ii) Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor ( earlier Archduke of Austria): in War of Spanish Succession, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; succeeds as Emperor, (i) ; war with Philip V ends, (i) Charles VIII, King of France, (i) Charles I, King of Great Britain: and dissent over union settlement, (i) ; visits Edinburgh, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; and innovation in Scotland, (i) ; liturgical reforms resisted in Scotland, (i) ; revenue raising in Scotland, (i) ; in First Bishops’ War with Scotland (1639), (i) ; and Scottish Covenant, (i) ; and Second Bishops’ War (1640), (i) ; opposition to, (i) ; in Civil War, (i) ; Scots hand over to English, (i) ; executed, (i) Charles II, King of Great Britain ( earlier Prince of Wales): restoration to English throne (1660), (i) , (ii) ; accepts Covenant, (i) , (ii) ; proclaimed as Scots ruler and crowned at Scone, (i) ; attitude to Scotland, (i) ; death and succession, (i) ; sends James, Duke of York, to Scotland, (i) Charles III, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Charles IV, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) Charles Edward Stuart, Prince (‘the Young Pretender’; ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’), (i) Chartism, (i) cholera epidemics, (i) Church of England (Anglican), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also Episcopalians Church of Rome (Catholic): Visigoths convert, (i) ; supports Scottish kings, (i) ; in Catalonia, (i) ; Exclusion Crisis and anti-Catholic legislation, (i) ; and Jacobitism, (i) , (ii) ; resistance to Enlightenment ideas, (i) ; distrusted in Britain, (i) ; emancipation in Britain (1829–30), (i) ; monopoly of worship and belief in Spain, (i) ; secularization of church property (1837) and Concordat of 1851, (i) ; and anticlericalism, (i) , (ii) ; in Scotland, (i) , (ii) ; strength in Spain, (i) Church of Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also Kirk; Presbyterianism Churchill, Sir Winston, (i) CiU (Convergència i Unió), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Ciutadans (Ciudadanos, ‘citizens’ party’, Catalonia), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Claim of Right (Scottish), (i) Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of: History of the Rebellion , (i) , (ii) Claris, Pau, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Clavé, Josep Anselm, (i) Clydeside, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo; National Confederation of Labour), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Coke, Sir John, (i) Cold War, (i) colonization, Scottish: in Ireland, (i) , (ii) , see also Ulster; in Americas, (i) , (ii) , see also America; see also Darien project Columbus, Christopher, (i) Colville, Robert, (i) comercio libre decree (1778), (i) , (ii) commerce see trade Committee of Estates (Scotland), (i) Commonwealth (1649), (i) Communist Party: in Spanish Civil War, (i) Community Charge (‘Poll Tax’), (i) Company of Scotland, (i) , (ii) Companys, Lluís, (i) , (ii) composite monarchy: British, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; Spanish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Compromise of Caspe (1412) see Caspe Concordat of 1851, (i) Conferència dels Tres Comuns (the Three Commons), (i) Confession of Faith (Scotland, 1581), (i) Conservative Party (British): opposes home rule for Scotland, (i) , (ii) ; affiliation with Scottish Liberal Unionists, (i) ; post-war successes, (i) ; loses support in Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; coalition with Liberal Democrats (2010), (i) ; wins 2015 election, (i) Conservative Party (Scottish), (i) , (ii) ; see also Scotland, Unionism; Unionist Party Conservative Party (Spanish), (i) , (ii) ; see also Cánovas del Castillo, Antonio; Maura, Antonio Constitutions: Catalan: (i) , (ii) ; under threat, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Philip IV guarantees to respect, (i) , (ii) ; Philip V confirms, (i) , (ii) ; abolition (1714), (i) , (ii) ; desire for recovery, (i) ; see also fueros English and British, (i) Spanish: Cadiz (1812), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; (1837), (i) ; (1845), (i) , (ii) ; (1876), (i) ; (1932), (i) ; (1978), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) constitutionalism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Consulate of the Sea, Barcelona (Consolat del Mar), (i) contractualism: in Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; Catalan ( pactismo ), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) ; Bourbons and, (i) ; Riego on, (i) Convention of Estates (Scottish), (i) Cook, Robin, (i) corregidores , corregimientos , (i) Cortes: Castilian, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Aragonese, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Valencian, (i) ; Spanish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Cambó and a constituent Cortes, (i) ; see also Cadiz, Cortes of Corts: Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Philip V convenes, (i) , (ii) ; convened by Archduke Charles of Austria, (i) , (ii) ; Barcelona street named for, (i) Corunna, (i) cotton manufacture: in Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; in Scotland, (i) ; see also textiles Council of Europe: Venice Commission, (i) Council of a Hundred (Consell de Cent, Barcelona), (i) , (ii) Court of Exchequer (Scotland), (i) Court of Sessions (Scotland), (i) Covenant and Covenanters (Scottish): drawn up, (i) ; appeal in England, (i) ; Charles II signs, (i) , (ii) ; effect on Scottish government, (i) ; uprisings, (i) ; resistance suppressed, (i) Craig, Sir Thomas, (i) Cromwell, Oliver, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Crowe, Mitford, (i) Cuba, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Cuixart, Jordi, (i) Cullen, William, (i) Culloden, battle of (1746), (i) Cumberland, Prince William, Duke of, (i) Cunningham, George, (i) customs dues and barriers: between Castile and Crown of Aragon, (i) , (ii) ; between Portugal and Castile, (i) ; in Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; in Spain, (i) , (ii) Dalrymple, Sir James see Stair, 1st Viscount Dalyell, Tam, (i) , (ii) Darien project (Panama isthmus, 1696–1700), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; post-1707, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Darling, Alistair, (i) Darnley, Henry Stewart, Lord, (i) David I, King of Scotland, (i) década ominosa (Spain, 1823–33), (i) Defensor del Pueblo (‘ombudsman’), (i) Dencàs, Josep, (i) Descartes, René, (i) Despuig, Cristòfor, (i) , (ii) devolution see home rule Dewar, Donald, (i) Diari Català (newspaper), (i) Diario de Barcelona , (i) Diputació (standing committee of Corts): functions, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; investigated (1588), (i) ; petitions Madrid, (i) ; and 1640 revolt, (i) , see also Claris, Pau; Philip IV orders changes, (i) ; Barcelona street named for, (i) ; revived (1931), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; re-established (1977), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also Generalitat Disruptionists (Free Church of Scotland), (i) , (ii) Domènech i Muntaner, Lluís, (i) Dou i Bassols, Ramon Llàtzer (Lázaro), (i) Douglas-Home, Sir Alec, (i) Dunbar, battles of: (1296), (i) ; (1650), (i) , (ii) Dundas, Henry (1st Viscount Melville), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Dundee, John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount, (i) Dutch Republic: hostilities with Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; wars with Britain, (i) ; in War of Spanish Succession, (i) , (ii) ; as a model for Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; Scotland as possible province of, (i) East India Company, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Ebro, river: (i) , (ii) economy: British, (i) , (ii) Catalan: late medieval, (i) ; plans for revival, c . 1700, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; 18th-century development of, (i) , (ii) ; 19th century, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; under Franco, (i) ; since 1975, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Scottish: before 1700, (i) , (ii) , see also Darien project; 18th-century development of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , see also Clydeside; Glasgow; since Second World War, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Spanish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) see also agriculture; industrialization; trade Eden, Anthony, (i) Edinburgh: Charles I visits, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; travel distance to London, (i) , (ii) , (iii) n.126; anti-popish demonstrations, (i) ; Porteous Riots (1736), (i) ; population increase, (i) ; and growth of market economy, (i) ; as cultural-intellectual capital, (i) , (ii) ; New Town, (i) ; riots on George III’s birthday (1792), (i) Edinburgh Agreement (2012), (i) Edinburgh Review , (i) Edinburgh, Treaty of (1328), (i) education: in Catalonia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , see also language; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; in Spain, (i) ; see also universities Edward I, King of England, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Edward II, King of England, (i) Edward IV, King of England, (i) Edward VI, King of England (as Prince), (i) Eglinton, Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of, (i) Eixalà, Martí d’, (i) El Bruc, (i) elections: British: (1987), (i) ; (May 1997), (i) ; (2010), (i) ; (May 2015), (i) Catalan: (1904), (i) ; (1907), (i) ; (1909), (i) ; (1923), (i) ; (1931), (i) ; (1932), (i) ; (1936), (i) ; (1980), (i) ; (2003), (i) ; (2010), (i) ; (2012), (i) ; (2017), (i) Scottish: Hamilton by-election (1967), (i) ; (1999), (i) ; (2007), (i) ; (2011), (i) Spanish: (1901), (i) ; (1907) (i) ; (1932), (i) ; (February 1936), (i) ; (June 1977), (i) ; (2003), (i) ; (2011), (i) ; (2016), (i) Elizabeth I, Queen of England, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Elliot, Walter, (i) emigration: Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Catalan, (i) empires: Austro-Hungarian, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; independence movements, (i) British, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Scottish contribution to, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Spanish (Empire of the Indies), (i) , (ii) ; Catalans in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; independence movements, (i) , (ii) ; end of Spain’s American empire (1898), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also monarquía española Engagers (moderate covenanters), (i) England: dynastic union with Scotland (1603), (i) , (ii) ; conquers and incorporates Wales, (i) ; claims to lordship over all Britain, (i) ; establishes boundary with Scotland, (i) ; wars with France, (i) ; terms of union settlement debated (1604), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; resentment at Scots in James’s English court, (i) , (ii) ; intermarriage with Scots, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; customs barriers with Scotland, (i) ; failure of incorporating project, (i) ; Scots invade (1640), (i) ; English victory, (i) , (ii) ; negotiations with Scots and Treaty of Union (1707), (i) ; government’s unpopularity in Scotland, (i) ; anti-Scottish nationalism (1760s), (i) ; medieval constitution, (i) ; parliamentary reform movement, (i) ; MPs predominate in British parliament, (i) ; economic preponderance, (i) ; history compared with Scottish, (i) ; close ties with Scotland, (i) ; nationalism and anti-Scottish sentiments, (i) Enlightenment: Scottish, (i) , (ii) ; Spain resists, (i) Episcopalians: in Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; support Jacobites, (i) , (ii) ‘Equivalent’ (settlement of Company of Scotland), (i) , (ii) Escarré, Aureli M., abbot of Montserrat, (i) España, Carlos, Count of, (i) Espartero, General Baldomero, (i) , (ii) Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Estates: Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Catalonia, (i) , (ii) Estatut, (i) ; see also Autonomy, Statutes of ETA (Basque movement), (i) European Commission: bars unilateral secession, (i) European Union ( formerly Community): promotes liberal democracy, (i) ; Spain joins, (i) ; Scottish policy on, (i) ; attitude to breakaway states, (i) ; and British referendum, (i) ; Britain votes to leave, (i) ; danger of independent Catalonia losing membership, (i) ; member states fear internal separatist movements, (i) ; Puigdemont supporters denounce, (i) Ewing, Winifred, (i) Exclusion Crisis (England, 1679–81), (i) ‘exempt provinces’, (i) , (ii) , (iii) exhibitions: Barcelona, (i) , (ii) ; Glasgow, (i) ; Paris (1937), (i) Faculty of Advocates (Scottish), (i) , (ii) fadristerns , (i) , (ii) ; see also mas (farmstead) fascism, (i) , (ii) federalism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) felipistas , (i) , (ii) Feliu de la Peña, Narciso, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Fénix de Cataluña , (i) Ferdinand of Antequera, (i) Ferdinand (the Catholic), King of Aragon and of Spain: marriage and rule, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; death, (i) , (ii) ; as king of Aragon after Isabella’s death, (i) ; and Sentence of Guadalupe, (i) ; captures Granada, (i) Ferdinand VII, King of Spain ( earlier Prince of Asturias), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) Ferguson, Adam, (i) Feria, Lorenzo Suárez de Figueroa y Córdoba, 2nd Duke of, (i) Ferrer i Guárdia, Francesc, (i) Ferro, Víctor, (i) feudalism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) First World War see Great War (1914–18) fiscal-military state, (i) , (ii) flags: Scottish, (i) ; British (union flag), (i) , (ii) ; Spanish, (i) , (ii) ; Catalan, (i) , (ii) Flanders, (i) Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, (i) Flodden Field, battle of (1513), (i) foral law (Catalonia), (i) , (ii) Forcadell, Carme, (i) France: ‘auld alliance’ with Scotland, (i) ; rescues and supports Mary Queen of Scots, (i) ; wars with England, (i) ; Catalonia becomes protectorate of, (i) , (ii) ; war with Spain (1635–59), (i) , (ii) ; Franco-Spanish frontier redrawn (1659), (i) ; French immigrants in Catalonia, (i) ; French invasion (1695–7), (i) ; Catalan hostility to, (i) , (ii) ; supports Stuart pretender to English throne, (i) ; war with Spain (1793–5), (i) ; French invasion and Spanish resistance (1808), (i) , (ii) ; occupies Catalonia in Napoleonic Wars, (i) Francis II, King of France, (i) Franco, General Francisco, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Franks, (i) , (ii) Free Church of Scotland, (i) , (ii) French Revolution (1789), (i) , (ii) fueros (Aragonese and Valencian): Aragon’s revolt over defence of, (i) ; abolished by Philip V, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; ‘exempt provinces’, (i) , (ii) ; desire for recovery, (i) ; see also Constitutions, Catalan Gaelic see language Galicia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Galileo Galilei, (i) Ganivet, Ángel: Idearium español , (i) Garbett, Samuel, (i) Gaudí, Antoni, (i) Gaythelos (Greek prince), (i) Generalitat: role and function, (i) ; revived (1931), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; re-established (1977), (i) , (ii) ; Pujol’s presidency, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Constitutional Tribunal discusses, (i) ; educational and cultural programmes, (i) ; anger at Supreme Constitutional Tribunal’s ruling, (i) ; policy on independence, (i) , (ii) ; overspending, (i) ; economic management, (i) ; see also Diputació; Govern Genoa, Treaty of (1705), (i) Geoffrey of Monmouth: History of the Kings of England , (i) , (ii) George I, King of Great Britain, (i) , (ii) George II, King of Great Britain, (i) George III, King of Great Britain, (i) George IV, King of Great Britain, (i) Gibbs, James, (i) Gibraltar: captured by Allies (1704), (i) Gil, Pere, (i) Gil Robles, José María, (i) Gilmour, Sir John, (i) Girona: established as province, (i) ; under French occupation, (i) ; sieges of (1684), (i) ; (1808), (i) Gladstone, William Ewart, (i) , (ii) n.4 Glasgow: riots over proposed union (1706), (i) ; Malt Tax riots (1725), (i) ; population increase, (i) ; and Atlantic trade, (i) ; Literary Society, (i) ; compared with Barcelona, (i) ; mercantile elite, (i) ; university, (i) , (ii) n. 130; unrest and riots (1819), (i) ; (1848), (i) ; industrial growth and dominance, (i) , (ii) ; Kelvingrove Park exhibitions (1880 and 1901), (i) ; contribution to Great War, (i) ; rent strike, (i) ; see also Clydeside Glasgow General Assembly (1638), (i) Glencairn, William Cunningham, 9th Earl of, (i) Glencoe, Massacre of (1692), (i) Glendower, Owen, (i) , (ii) Glenfinnan, (i) globalization, (i) Glorious Revolution (1688–9), (i) , (ii) Gloucester, William, Duke of: death (1700), (i) ‘God Save the King’: as British national anthem, (i) , (ii) Goded, General Manuel, (i) Godoy, Manuel, (i) Good Friday Agreement (Ireland, 1998), (i) Goschen, George, 1st Viscount, (i) Goths, (i) Govern, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Goya, Francisco, (i) Granada: as Moorish kingdom, (i) ; captured by Ferdinand and Isabella, (i) Grant, Alexander, (i) Great Britain: and Scottish independence movement, (i) ; formed by James VI/I’s joint monarchy, (i) ; mythical origins, (i) ; and dynastic union (1603), (i) ; as term, (i) , (ii) ; and nationality, (i) ; formally created (1707), (i) , (ii) ; reordered after Union, (i) ; victories in Seven Years War, (i) ; as fiscal-military state, (i) ; impact of French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, (i) , (ii) ; Spain sees as enemy, (i) ; wars with Spain (1796–1802, 1804–8), (i) ; growing power, (i) ; patriotism, (i) ; as united nation-state, (i) ; union by association and imitation, (i) ; 19th-century stability and prosperity, (i) ; proposed federalism, (i) ; regional aspirations, (i) ; patriotism in Great War, (i) ; sense of unity in Second World War, (i) ; welfare state established, (i) , (ii) ; post-war GDP, (i) ; votes to leave EU, (i) ; see also England Great Depression (1929–1930s), (i) Great Reform Bill (and Act, 1832), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Great War (1914–18): and collapse of Austro-Hungarian Empire, (i) ; suspends British home rule movements, (i) , (ii) ; and social-political change, (i) ; Spain’s neutrality in, (i) , (ii) ; effect on British sense of community, (i) Guadalupe, Sentence of, (i) Guardia Civil: created (1844), (i) Güell family, (i) Guipúzcoa, (i) Habsburg dynasty: and Spanish royal succession, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Haig, Douglas, 1st Earl, (i) Hamilton, James, 3rd Marquis ( later 1st Duke) of, (i) Hamilton, James Douglas, 4th Duke of (and Duke of Brandon), (i) , (ii) Hamilton, James, 7th Duke of, (i) Hamilton by-election (1967), (i) Hampden, John, (i) Hanover, House of: and succession to British throne, (i) , (ii) harvest: failures in Scotland (1695–9), (i) ; in Spain (1790s), (i) Hastings, Warren, (i) Heath, Ted, (i) Hebrides, (i) Henry II, King of England, (i) Henry VII, King of England, (i) , (ii) Henry VIII, King of England, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Henry II, King of France, (i) heraldry: Catalan, (i) Heritable Jurisdictions Act (1747), (i) , (ii) Hesse-Darmstadt, George, Prince of, (i) Highlands (Scottish): character, (i) ; lawlessness and banditry in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Glencairn’s rising (1653), (i) ; Monck subdues, (i) ; as recruiting ground for Jacobites, (i) ; Anglicization, (i) , (ii) ; land tenure, (i) ; Wade’s road-building programme, (i) ; and Jacobite rebellion (1745), (i) ; farming difficulties, (i) ; provides troops for British Army, (i) ; migration to America, (i) ; and national identity, (i) ; in romanticized history, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; clearances, (i) , (ii) Hispania: as myth, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; as term, (i) historiography, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also myths Holland, Henry Richard Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron, (i) Holyroodhouse, Palace of, (i) home rule: Catalan, (i) , (ii) ; Spain and, (i) ; Irish, (i) , (ii) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; devolution accepted by major British political parties, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; critics of, (i) , (ii) ; see also independence Horne, Sir Robert, (i) Huguenots: persecuted in France, (i) Hume, David, (i) Hundred Thousand Sons of St Louis, (i) Hutcheson, Francis, (i) ‘Hymn of the Grenadiers’ (Spanish national anthem), (i) Iberian Peninsula: union of regions, (i) , (ii) ; localism, (i) ; see also federalism; Hispania; Spain Ilay, Archibald Campbell, Earl of ( later 3rd Duke of Argyll), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ‘improvement’: English origins, (i) , (ii) ; in Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; in Catalonia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) independence movements: Catalan, (i) , (ii) ; independent republic (1641) (i) ; (1713), (i) ; criticized by Balmes, (i) ; (1934) (i) ; (since 2010), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; overseas imperial territories, (i) , (ii) ; Cuba, (i) , (ii) ; see also home rule; secession and separatism India: Scots in, (i) Indies see empires, Spanish industrialization: Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; European, (i) , (ii) ; see also ‘improvement’; textiles Innes, Thomas, (i) Inquisition, Spanish, (i) Institute of San Isidro, (i) intermarriage: Scots-English, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; in Spanish Monarchy, (i) Ireland: treaty with Britain (1921) and creation of Irish Free State (1922), (i) , (ii) ; conquered by English, (i) , (ii) ; Henry VIII proclaimed King of (1541) and English rule, (i) , (ii) ; relations with western Scotland and Scottish settlers in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Ulster plantation, (i) ; rebellion (1641), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; support for James II and reconquered by William III, (i) ; keeps parliament, (i) ; manpower resources, (i) ; 1798 rebellion, (i) , (ii) ; incorporating union (1801) and inclusion in British parliament, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Church disestablished (1869), (i) ; nationalism and Home Rule movement, (i) , (ii) ; Easter Rising (1916), (i) , (ii) ; Irish immigrants in Scotland, (i) ; see also Northern Ireland; Ulster Isabel II, Queen of Spain, (i) Isabella I of Castile, Queen of Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) Italy: fascism in, (i) ; see also Mazzini Jacobites and Jacobitism: (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; rebellions (1715), (i) , (ii) ; (1745), (i) , (ii) ; Jacobitism and Scottish history, (i) ; see also Charles Edward Stuart; James Francis Edward Stuart Jamància (pastry-cooks’ revolt, 1842), (i) James II, King of Great Britain ( earlier Duke of York): proposed as viceroy in Scotland, (i) ; Edinburgh court (1679–82), (i) ; accession (1685) and religious policy, (i) ; flight to France and exile, (i) ; death (1701), (i) James III, King of Scotland, (i) James IV, King of Scotland, (i) , (ii) James V, King of Scotland, (i) James VI, King of Scotland (James I of England): succeeds to English throne (1603), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; as ruler of composite monarchy, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; crowned king of Scotland, (i) ; adopts style ‘Great Britain’, (i) ; compatriots follow to English court, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; advocates perfect union, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) ; and nationality question, (i) ; on intermarriage of nobility, (i) ; attempts to pacify Borders, (i) ; death (1625), (i) James Francis Edward Stuart, Prince (‘the Old Pretender’; ‘James III/VIII’): and succession, (i) ; rising (1715), (i) , (ii) ; exile and plotting, (i) ; see also Jacobites Jaume I, Count-King (‘the Conqueror’), (i) Jefferson, Thomas, (i) Jeffreys, George, 1st Baron, (i) Jenkins’s Ear, War of (1739–48), (i) Jesuits, (i) , (ii) Jocs Florals , (i) , (ii) John of Fordun, (i) John II, King of Aragon, (i) John II, King of Catalonia, (i) John IV, King of Portugal ( formerly Duke of Braganza), (i) Johnson, Samuel, (i) Johnston, Tom, (i) Johnstone family, (i) Johnstone, George, (i) Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, (i) Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) Juan Carlos, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Juan José de Austria, Don, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Junqueras, Oriol, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Junta de Comercio (Barcelona), (i) Junta Superior (Catalonia, 1808), (i) , (ii) Junts per Catalunya (JpC), (i) , (ii) Justices of the Peace: in Scotland, (i) Kames, Henry Home, Lord, (i) Killiecrankie, battle of (1689), (i) Kirk: General Assembly, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; unease at James VI/I’s religious policies, (i) ; gifts of property revoked, (i) ; Charles I’s liturgical reforms resisted, (i) ; fails to extend church government to England, (i) ; vulnerability after 1707 settlement, (i) ; welcomes Hanoverian succession, (i) ; opposes Gaelic language, (i) ; Moderates acquire control, (i) ; and national sentiment, (i) ; diminishing influence, (i) ; see also Church of Scotland; Disruptionists; Presbyterianism Kirk o’ Field, Edinburgh, (i) Knox, John, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also Covenant Labour Party (British), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) Labour Party (Scottish), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) labour (workers): in Scotland and Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; and industrial unrest, (i) ; organized, (i) , (ii) ; indifference to Catalan autonomy, (i) ; see also anarchism; trade unions lairds, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) language: Castilian, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; nineteenth-century revival, (i) , (ii) ; prohibitions under Franco, (i) ; official status in 1978 Constitution, (i) ; Generalitat’s promotion of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; English, (i) ; Gaelic, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Laud, William, Archbishop of Canterbury, (i) Lauderdale, John Maitland, 1st Duke of, (i) , (ii) law: English–Scottish differences, (i) ; English Common, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Catalan, (i) , (ii) León: united with Castile, (i) ; foundation myth, (i) Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, (i) Leovigild, Visigothic king, (i) Lérida see Lleida Lerroux, Alejandro, (i) , (ii) Leslie, General Alexander, 1st Earl of Leven, (i) Liberal Democrats (Britain): coalition with Conservatives (2010), (i) ; decline in Scotland, (i) Liberal Party (British), (i) , (ii) Liberal Party (Spanish), (i) ; factional divisions, (i) Liberal Unionists (Scottish), (i) , (ii) liberalism: ideology, (i) , (ii) ; in Cortes of Cadiz, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; in Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; liberal triennium (1820–3) (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; in Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; in Scotland, (i) Lithuania: union with Poland, (i) Lleida (Lérida), (i) , (ii) Lliga Regionalista ( later Catalana), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Llivia, (i) Llorens i Barba, Xavier, (i) Lloyd George, David, (i) London Corresponding Society, (i) Lord Advocate (Scotland), (i) , (ii) Lords of the Articles (Scotland), (i) , (ii) Lords, House of: Scottish peers in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; as ultimate court of appeal, (i) ; Irish peers in, (i) Lothian, William Kerr, 3rd Earl of, (i) Louis I (the Pious), Carolingian Emperor, (i) Louis XIII, King of France, (i) , (ii) Louis XIV, King of France, (i) , (ii) ; and Spanish succession, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Louis XVI, King of France, (i) Lublin, Union of (1569), (i) McCormick, John, (i) McCrone, David: Understanding Scotland , (i) MacDiarmid, Hugh, (i) MacDonald, Ramsay, (i) Macià, Colonel Francesc, (i) , (ii) Macmillan, Harold, (i) Macpherson, James, (i) Madrid: Archduke Charles captures, (i) , (ii) ; population increase, (i) ; uprising against French invaders ( dos de mayo , 1808), (i) ; urban elite, (i) ; lacks manufacturing, (i) ; political and administrative power, (i) , (ii) ; as national capital, (i) , (ii) ; University, (i) ; see also Castile; Spain Magna Carta (1215), (i) Mair, John: Historia Maioris Britanniae , (i) Major, John, (i) , (ii) Malcolm III, King of Scotland, (i) Malcontents , (i) Mallorca: Jaume I captures from Moors, (i) ; and Indies, (i) ; language, (i) , (ii) ; and Nueva Planta, (i) Malt Tax, (i) ; riots (Glasgow, 1725), (i) Man, Isle of, (i) Mancomunitat, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Manresa, (i) , (ii) Mar, John Erskine, 22nd or 6th Earl of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Maragall, Pasqual, (i) , (ii) Margaret (‘Maid of Norway’): death, (i) , (ii) Margaret, Queen of Alexander III of Scotland, (i) Margaret, St, Queen of Malcolm III of Scotland, (i) Margaret Tudor, Queen of James IV of Scotland, (i) Margarit i Pau, Joan, Cardinal, (i) María Cristina de Borbón, Queen of Ferdinand VII, (i) María Cristina de Austria, Queen of Alfonso XII, (i) Martin the Humane, Count of Barcelona, (i) Martínez Marina, Francisco, (i) ; Theory of the Cortes , (i) Mary of Guise, Queen of James V of Scotland, (i) , (ii) Mary I (Tudor), Queen of England, (i) Mary II (Stuart), Queen of Great Britain, (i) Mary Queen of Scots, (i) , (ii) Mas, Artur, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) mas (farmstead), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also fadristerns Mataró, (i) Maura, Antonio, (i) , (ii) May, Theresa, (i) Mazzini, Giuseppe, (i) ‘Memorandum of Grievances’ ( Memorial de Greuges ), (i) Menéndez y Pelayo, Marcelino, (i) Menorca, (i) Millar, John, (i) miquelets , (i) , (ii) Miralles, Enric, (i) Miró, Joan: Segador (mural), (i) modernista movement, (i) Mon, Alejandro, (i) monarchy: as unifying force, (i) ; ‘vertical’ and ‘horizontal’, (i) , (ii) ; restored in Spain (1874), (i) ; ceremonial activities in Europe, (i) ; as centre of stability in Spain, (i) ; styling in Britain, (i) monarquia española (Spanish Monarchy), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also empires, Spanish Monck, General George (1st Duke of Albemarle), (i) , (ii) Monmouth, James Scott, Duke of: rebellion (1685), (i) Montjuïc, battle of (1641), (i) ; World Fair site (1929), (i) Montrose, James Graham, 5th Earl and 1st Marquis of, (i) , (ii) Montserrat: Santa Maria abbey, (i) , (ii) Moors (Muslims): invade and settle southern Spain, (i) ; conflict with Christians, (i) ; Barcelona recaptured from, (i) Morocco: Spain’s wars in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Mossos d’Esquadra, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Muir, Edwin, (i) Muirhead, Roland, (i) Muntañola, Pere, (i) Murat, General Joachim, (i) Mussolini, Benito, (i) myths: and national identity, (i) , (ii) ; and foundation of Britain and Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; and foundation of Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; see also historiography; Romantic movement Nairn, Tom, (i) Naples: Alfonso V conquers, (i) ; and composite monarchy, (i) Napoleon I (Bonaparte), Emperor of the French, (i) , (ii) Napoleonic Wars: impact on Britain and Spain, (i) , (ii) Narváez, General Ramón Maria, 1st Duke of Valencia, (i) Naseby, battle of (1645), (i) nation: concept and meaning, (i) , (ii) ‘nation-state’: as political formation, (i) ; (i) ; (i) ; Pi i Margall on, (i) ; Prat de la Riba on, (i) national anthems, (i) , (ii) National Assembly of Catalonia (ANC), (i) National Party of Scotland, (i) nationalism: rise of, (i) , (ii) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; linguistic, (i) ; English, (i) , (ii) ; Spanish, (i) , (ii) ; British, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; in post–Great War Europe, (i) ; resurgence, (i) , (ii) ; changes with circumstances, (i) ; see also patria , patriotism; unionist nationalism nationality, (i) ; difficulties over definition, (i) nationalization, (i) NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), (i) Navarre, kingdom of: status in Spain, (i) ; Castilian conquest and incorporation (1515), (i) ; under Bourbon administration, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also ‘exempt provinces’ Navigation Acts (English), (i) , (ii) Negrín, Juan, (i) Netherlands see Dutch Republic, Flanders New Lanark, (i) New Model Army (English), (i) Newcastle, Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of, (i) newspapers, (i) , (ii) Newton, Sir Isaac: Principia Mathematica , (i) Nifo, Francisco Mariano, (i) Nine Years War (1688–97), (i) , (ii) nobility: Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; intermarriage in Britain and Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; see also Lords, House of Normans: expansion in Britain, (i) North America Act (Britain, 1867), (i) North Sea oil, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Northern Ireland: Good Friday Agreement (1998), (i) ; see also Ulster Norway: contends for dominion over Scotland, (i) Nottingham, Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of, (i) Nueva Planta: as incorporating union, (i) , (ii) ; and system of government and administration, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Numancia, (i) , (ii) Núria Statute, (i) ‘October Revolution’ (1934), (i) O’Donnell, General Leopoldo, (i) Olivares, Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of: administration and reforms, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; and war with France (1635), (i) ; and Catalans, (i) , (ii) ; opposition and downfall, (i) ; see also Union of Arms Oliver, Frederick Scott, (i) , (ii) Omnium Cultural (organization), (i) Organic Laws (1978 Constitution), (i) , (ii) n. 41 Orkney, (i) Ortega y Gasset, José, (i) Orwell, George, (i) Ossian, (i) Oswald, Richard, (i) Oxford, Robert Harley, 1st Earl of, (i) , (ii) Paisley: riots (1819), (i) Paris International Exhibition (1937), (i) Parliament British: composition, (i) ; and peripheral countries’ representation, (i) ; sovereignty, (i) ; see also Great Reform Bill (1832); Lords, House of Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) English: and union with Scotland, (i) ; Short (1640), (i) ; Long (1640–60), (i) ; Rump (1648), (i) ; as counterpart to Scottish parliament, (i) ; Convention (1689), (i) ; historical legacy, (i) Irish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Scottish: devolved, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; defers to monarch, (i) ; ratifies National Covenant, (i) ; and Triennial Act, (i) , (ii) ; and rebellion (1640s), (i) ; Covenanter, (i) ; dissolved, (i) ; post-Restoration status, (i) ; relations with English parliament, (i) ; activities, (i) ; passes Succession Act favouring James II, (i) ; revival under William III, (i) ; history of, (i) Spanish see Cortes; Corts parliamentary democracy: European disillusionment with, (i) Partido Popular (PP), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) Paterson, William, (i) Patiño, José, (i) , (ii) patria , patriotism: Catalan image of, (i) ; and Scottish and Catalan rebellions, (i) ; dual patriotism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; in Cortes of Cadiz, (i) ; and struggle for liberty, (i) ; and a federal Spain, (i) ; and state, (i) ; Primo de Rivera and Spanish, (i) Patronage Act (British, 1712), (i) peasantry, Catalan: (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) peers (Scottish): in House of Lords, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; apply for English titles, (i) Pelayo, Don (legendary figure), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Penedès region, (i) Peninsular War, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Perpinyà (Perpignan), (i) Perth, Five Articles of (1618–21), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Peterborough, Admiral Charles Mordaunt, 3rd Earl of, (i) Peterloo Massacre (Manchester, 1819), (i) Petronilla, wife of Ramon Berenguer, (i) Philip II, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) Philip III, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) Philip IV, King of Spain: accession (1621), (i) ; early encounters with Catalans, (i) ; and Olivares’s administration, (i) , see also Olivares; and Catalan rebellion (1640–52), (i) , (ii) ; rule without minister-favourite, (i) Philip V, King of Spain ( earlier Duke of Anjou): contends for succession, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; and Catalan Corts (1702), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Nueva Planta, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; aims to recover lost Italian territories, (i) ; war with Charles VI ends, (i) Philip VI, King of Spain, (i) , (ii) Philippines, (i) , (ii) Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, (i) Pi i Margall, Francesc, (i) , (ii) ; Las nacionalidades , (i) Picasso, Pablo: Guernica (painting), (i) Picts, (i) Pitt, William the Younger, (i) PNV (Partido Nacionalista Vasco, Basque Nationalist Party), (i) Poland: union with Lithuania, (i) political culture: English, (i) , (ii) ; Catalan, (i) ; Spanish, (i) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) population: Castile, (i) ; Catalonia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Crown of Aragon, (i) ; Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; England and Wales, (i) , (ii) Popular Front, (i) Porteous Riots (Edinburgh, 1736), (i) Portugal, kingdom of: (i) ; dynastic marriages, (i) ; and Ferdinand and Isabella’s title, (i) ; union with Spain (1580), (i) ; citizens declared foreigners in Castile, (i) ; customs barriers with Castile, (i) ; recovers independence (1640), (i) , (ii) ; in War of Spanish Succession, (i) ; French invade (1807), (i) ; and proposed federation with Spain, (i) , (ii) POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista), (i) Prat de la Riba, Enric, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Compendium of Catalanist Doctrines (with Muntañola), (i) ; La nacionalitat catalana , (i) prayer book: in Scotland, (i) Presbyterianism: (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; restored (1690), (i) , (ii) ; and Scottish national identity, (i) ; internal dissent, (i) ; relations with state, (i) ; see also Church of Scotland; Covenant; Kirk; Knox, John Preston, battle of (1648), (i) Prim, General Joan, (i) prime ministers (British): Scottish origins of, (i) , (ii) n. 4 Primo de Rivera, General Miguel, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Privy Council, British (post-Union), (i) , (ii) Privy Council, English, (i) , (ii) Privy Council, Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) pronunciamientos , (i) , (ii) proportional representation: in Scotland, (i) , (ii) protectionism, (i) Protestantism: adopted in England and Scotland, (i) ; and Scottish working-class culture, (i) ‘province’: differing interpretations, (i) PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español; Socialist Party), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Puerto Rico, (i) , (ii) Puig, Tomàs, (i) Puigdemont, Carles, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Pujol, Jordi, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) Pyrenees, Peace of the (1659), (i) Quadruple Alliance (Britain–France–Austria–Netherlands), (i) Quebec, (i) rabassaires , (i) , (ii) ; see also viticulture Radical Republican Party, (i) radicalism, (i) Rajoy, Mariano, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) Ramon Berenguer IV, Count, (i) rauxa , (i) rebellions: Aragon (1590–1), (i) , (ii) barretines (1687), (i) Carlist, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Catalonia: (1640), (i) , (ii) ; (1705), (i) ; (1719), (i) ; (1822), (i) Ireland: (1641), (i) , (ii) ; (1798), (i) , (ii) Jacobite: (1715), (i) , (ii) ; (1745), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Madrid (1808), (i) Monmouth’s (1685), (i) Riego’s (1820), (i) , (ii) Scotland: (1638), (i) ; (1640s), (i) see also wars, civil Recaredo, Visigothic king, (i) , (ii) referendums Canada (1980, 1995), (i) Catalan (2017), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Scotland: (1979), (i) ; (1997), (i) ; (2014), (i) , (ii) , (iii) Spain (1978), (i) Wales (1979), (i) Reformation (Protestant): effect on Anglo-Scottish relations, (i) , (ii) ; exacerbates religious differences, (i) regidores , (i) , (ii) regionalism: in Spain, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) , (ix) , (x) , (xi) ; in Catalonia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; see also Home Rule; Lliga regionalista religion: resurgence, (i) ; see also Church of England; Church of Rome; Church of Scotland Renaixença , (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) resistance, right of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Revocation, Act of (1625), (i) revolutions of 1848, (i) , (ii) Richard III, King of England, (i) Richelieu, Cardinal Armand du Plessis, Duc de, (i) , (ii) Riego, Colonel Rafael de, (i) , (ii) rights (civil): and independence movements, (i) Ripon, Treaty of (1640), (i) Rius i Taulet, Francesc, (i) Rivera, Albert, (i) Robertson, William, (i) ; The History of America , (i) Robres, Agustín López de Mendoza y Pons, Count of, (i) Roebuck, John, (i) Romanones, Alvaro de Figueroa, Count of, (i) Romantic movement: influence, (i) , (ii) ; and historiography, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; and revival of Catalan language, (i) Rome: Fascist march on (1922), (i) Ross, Willie, (i) Rosselló ( comtat ), (i) ‘rough wooing’ (Henry VIII’s), (i) Royal Academy of History, Madrid, (i) Royal Commission on the Constitution (1969), (i) Royal Company of Barcelona, (i) Rubió i Ors, Joaquim, (i) Ryswick, Treaty of (1697), (i) Sabadell, (i) Sagasta, Práxades, (i) Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquis of, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Salmond, Alex, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) San Sebastián, Pact of (1930), (i) Sànchez, Jordi, (i) Sanjurjo, General José, (i) Sanpere i Miquel, Salvador, (i) Santa Coloma, Dalmau de Queralt, Count of, (i) , (ii) Sardana (dance form), (i) Scone, Scotland: as site of royal enthronement, (i) , (ii) ; stone of, (i) , (ii) Scota (mythical Scottish queen), (i) Scotia: as term, (i) Scotland: recent independence movement, (i) ; as nation without state, (i) ; devolved parliament (Assembly), (i) , (ii) ; dynastic union with England (1603), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Edward I invades and subdues, (i) ; geographical character, (i) ; colonised and settled, (i) ; influence of sea on, (i) ; Scots dominate, (i) ; early claims to sovereignty, (i) , (ii) ; land ownership and transfers, (i) ; close relations with Ireland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; local powers and chieftains, (i) ; territorial consolidation and expansion, (i) , (ii) ; slow state-building, (i) ; Wars of Independence, (i) , (ii) ; ‘auld alliance’ with France (1295), (i) ; population changes, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; foundation myth, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Protestantism, (i) , (ii) ; union settlement debated, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; administrative system after union, (i) ; intermarriage with English, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; and nationality question, (i) ; customs barriers with England, (i) ; transatlantic trade and colonization (i) , (ii) ; incorporating union with England, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; innovation and reform under Charles I, (i) ; revenue raising under Charles I, (i) ; Estates, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; rebellion against England (1640s), (i) ; defeated by Cromwell (1650), (i) ; army threat to England, (i) ; army strength, (i) ; seeks confederal union with England, (i) ; role and fortunes in English Civil War, (i) , (ii) ; rift with England over execution of Charles I, (i) ; improvement in, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) , (ix) ; post–Civil War settlement and government reforms, (i) ; Episcopacy reimposed (1661), (i) ; rejects office of viceroy, (i) ; clan conflict, (i) ; church government (Presbyterian) in, (i) , (ii) ; and succession question (to Charles II), (i) ; divisions in, (i) ; cross-border trade, (i) , (ii) ; economic hardship and population loss, (i) , (ii) ; migration to America, (i) , (ii) ; William III’s indifference to, (i) ; and succession to William III and Anne, (i) ; opposes Catholic monarch, (i) ; as prospective province of Dutch Republic, (i) ; government and constitution under Union, (i) ; fear of anglicization after Treaty of Union, (i) ; constituencies reduced, (i) ; post-Union administrative and political part-autonomy, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; coinage, (i) ; sacrifices sovereignty, (i) ; shares economy with England, (i) ; delayed economic development, (i) ; Secretary of State for Scotland office revived under Oxford, (i) ; unable to participate in overseas trade, (i) ; administrative reforms under Walpole, (i) ; riots against English government, (i) ; resents English governance, (i) ; feudal jurisdictions abolished (1748), (i) ; social and economic changes (18th century), (i) , (ii) ; commercial networks disrupted by wars, (i) ; surplus food production and exports, (i) ; access to British market and overseas trade, (i) ; industrialization, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; textile and weaving industry, (i) , (ii) ; gains access to overseas trade, (i) , (ii) ; military service abroad, (i) ; shipbuilding, (i) ; manpower resources, (i) ; taxation levels, (i) ; administrators in India and colonies, (i) ; rise of English hostility to (1760s), (i) ; national identity and culture, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Enlightenment, (i) ; dual patriotism in, (i) ; and romanticized history, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; dissent and riots in, (i) ; Lords Lieutenant introduced, (i) ; national militia question, (i) ; representation in British parliament, (i) ; national debt, (i) ; ‘radical war’ (1820), (i) ; contribution to British Empire, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; agricultural revolution, (i) ; employment and labour, (i) ; landed aristocracy, (i) ; cotton spinners’ strike (1837), (i) ; parliamentary reform, (i) ; laissez-faire government in mid-19th century, (i) ; peripheral role in British economic development, (i) ; semi-independence, (i) ; feudalism survives, (i) ; historiography, (i) ; nineteenth-century renaissance, (i) ; grievances, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; provides British prime ministers, (i) , (ii) n. 4; education, (i) ; demands separate Department of State, (i) ; home rule movement, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; close ties with England, (i) ; in Great War, (i) ; effect of Irish developments in, (i) ; Labour party ascendancy in, (i) ; political parties established in British system, (i) ; Unionism, (i) , (ii) ; devolution proposals, (i) ; in Great Depression, (i) ; ‘Renaissance’ (1930s), (i) ; contribution to Second World War, (i) ; state intervention in, (i) ; heavy industries decline, (i) , (ii) ; post–Second World War nationalism, (i) ; referendum on devolution (1979), (i) ; Poll Tax (Community Charge) proposed, (i) ; recession (1980s), (i) ; campaign for legislative assembly, (i) ; parliament opened (July 1999), (i) ; proportional representation in 1999 poll, (i) ; referendum (September 1997), (i) ; economic resources and revival, (i) , (ii) ; renaissance of history as academic subject, (i) ; referendum campaign and vote on independence (2014), (i) , (ii) ; plans second referendum on independence, (i) ; and end of empire, (i) ; sense of Britishness, (i) ; and inadequate dialogue with London government, (i) ; see also Treaty of Union Scotland Act (1998), (i) Scots (people): arrival in Scotland, (i) ; unpopularity in England after union, (i) ; settle in Ulster, (i) Scott, Sir Walter: on Darien scheme, (i) , (ii) ; on development of Scotland, (i) ; popularity in Europe, (i) ; romanticizes Scottish past, (i) ; on Scottish emotionalism, (i) ; The Antiquary , (i) ; Waverley , (i) Scottish Assembly: proposed, (i) Scottish Council: established in London, (i) ; disbanded, (i) Scottish Education Act (1872), (i) Scottish Executive, (i) , (ii) ; title changed to Scottish Government, (i) Scottish Home Rule Association, (i) , (ii) Scottish Militia Act (1796), (i) Scottish National Party (SNP): founded, (i) ; weakness, (i) ; Hamilton by-election victory (1967), (i) ; growing strength, (i) , (ii) ; aims for independence, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; claims North Sea oil, (i) ; European policy, (i) , (ii) ; and new economy, (i) ; in government, (i) ; success in 2011 election, (i) , (ii) ; gains seats in 2015 general election, (i) ; membership increases after referendum, (i) ; members move to Barcelona to support independence, (i) ; popular appeal, (i) ; efficient rule, (i) Scottish Office: transferred to Edinburgh, (i) Scottish Reform Act (1832), (i) Scottish Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, (i) secession and separatism, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Catalonia and Portugal (1640), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Catalonia (2010–17), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Scotland (2014), (i) ; see also Cuba; independence movements Second World War (1939–45): and nationalism, (i) ; outbreak, (i) ; effect on British unity, (i) Security, Act of (1703), (i) seny , (i) , (ii) separatism see secession Serrano Suñer, Ramón, (i) Sert, Josep María, (i) Settlement, Act of (1701), (i) Seven Years War (1756–63), (i) , (ii) Sharp, James, Archbishop of St Andrews, (i) Shetland, (i) shipbuilding, (i) , (ii) Sidney, Algernon, (i) Silvela, Francisco, (i) Sinn Fein (Irish party), (i) slave trade, (i) Smith, Adam, (i) , (ii) ; Wealth of Nations , (i) Smith, John, (i) Socialist Party (Catalonia) see PSOE socialists: in Barcelona, (i) , (ii) Societies of Friends of the Country (Amigos del País), (i) Societies of the Friends of the People (Scotland), (i) Society of Barcelona Weavers, (i) Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture (Scotland), (i) Solemn League and Covenant (1643), (i) , (ii) Solidaritat Catalana, (i) Sophia, Electress of Hanover, (i) sovereignty: national, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Edward I claims over Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Bodin on indivisibility, (i) , (ii) ; embodied in English/British parliament, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Catalan claims, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Basque claims, (i) Soviet Union: collapse (1989), (i) Spain: and Catalan independence movement, (i) ; dynastic union (Ferdinand and Isabella), (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; mythological origins, (i) ; union with Portugal (1580), (i) ; in Low Countries, (i) ; internal customs, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; war with France (1635–40), (i) ; post-Olivares government, (i) ; frontier with France defined, (i) ; and the Austrian connection, (i) ; Bourbon administrative intentions, (i) ; sends invasion fleet against Britain (1719), (i) ; population, (i) ; as fiscal-military state, (i) ; migration to Americas, (i) ; taxation, (i) , (ii) ; national identity, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; resistance to Enlightenment ideas, (i) ; Britain perceived as enemy and rival, (i) ; impact of French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars on, (i) ; allies with France against Britain (1796–1802), (i) ; uprisings against French in Napoleonic wars, (i) , (ii) ; Cortes of Cadiz and constitutional monarchy, (i) , (ii) ; liberal reform, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; new regional divisions (1833), (i) ; economic development (19th century), (i) ; political instability in 19th century, (i) , (ii) ; tensions with Catalonia over government, (i) ; developed and undeveloped regions, (i) ; civil code, (i) ; Moderates and Progressives, (i) ; centralization, (i) ; Revolutionary Sexennium (1868–74), (i) ; First Republic (1873), (i) , (ii) ; monarchy restored (1874), (i) ; considers home rule for regions and overseas territories, (i) ; varied historic regions and communities, (i) ; proposed federalism, (i) , (ii) ; defeat in war with USA (1898), (i) ; anarchist attacks in, (i) ; war in Morocco, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; loss of Empire and decline, (i) , (ii) ; regionalism, (i) , (ii) ; neutrality in Great War, (i) , (ii) ; provoked by increasing Catalan nationalism, (i) ; and Primo de Rivera’s nationalism, (i) , (ii) ; Second Republic (1931), (i) , (ii) ; under Franco’s dictatorship, (i) , (ii) ; monarchy restored (1975), (i) ; decentralization under 1978 Constitution, (i) ; membership of European Community and NATO, (i) ; failure to counter Catalan independence propaganda, (i) ; illegality of unilateral secession under Constitution, (i) ; reaction to Catalan referendum and declaration on independence, (i) ; and consequences of Catalan independence decision, (i) ; see also Castile Spanish Civil War see wars, civil Spanish Succession, War of (1700–14), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Spanish-American War (1898), (i) , (ii) ‘Squadrone Volante’ (Scotland), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) Stair, Sir James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount, (i) ; Institutions of the Laws of Scotland , (i) state, the: and surrender of overseas empires, (i) ; changing meaning, (i) ; fiscal-military, (i) ; and sense of nationality, (i) ; and bureaucracy, (i) ; and pàtria , (i) ; Catalonia as a ‘complete’ state, (i) ; see also ‘nation-state’; nationalism Stevenson, Robert Louis, (i) Stewart see Stuart Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of, (i) ‘Strategy for Catalanization’ (document), (i) Stuart dynasty, (i) , (ii) Sturgeon, Nicola, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Suárez, Adolfo, (i) , (ii) Supreme Constitutional Tribunal (Spain), (i) , (ii) , (iii) syndicalists, (i) , (ii) ; see also anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism; trade unions tacks (Highland land leases), (i) Tarradellas, Josep, (i) , (ii) , (iii) Tarragona, (i) taxation: in Catalonia (1716), (i) , (ii) ; (2015) (i) ; in Scotland (18th century), (i) ; (since 1888), (i) ; in Spain, (i) , (ii) Terrassa, (i) textiles: Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) ; Scottish, (i) , (ii) Thatcher, Margaret, (i) , (ii) Thirty Years War (1618–48), (i) Three Commons, the see Conferència dels Tres Comuns Times, The , (i) , (ii) tobacco: trade, (i) , (ii) Toleration Acts (England, 1689), (i) , (ii) ; (British, 1712), (i) , (ii) Tories: election victory (1710), (i) , (ii) ; see also Conservative Party Townsend, Joseph, (i) , (ii) Townshend, Charles, (i) trade: Catalan, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ; see also Darien project Spanish Atlantic, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) trade unions: Scottish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; Spanish, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; see also anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism trading companies, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also individual companies Trastámaras, (i) , (ii) Treaty of Union (Anglo-Scottish, 1707): and Scottish parliament, (i) ; negotiated and ratified, (i) ; as incorporating union, (i) , (ii) ; and Scottish and English law, (i) ; and Scottish religious fears, (i) ; and Scottish representation in British parliament, (i) ; on relations between state and Presbyterian Church, (i) ; see also Anglo-Scottish Union Trevor-Roper, Hugh, (i) Triennial Act (Scotland, 1641), (i) , (ii) Tubal, son of Japhet, (i) , (ii) Tweeddale, John Hay, 4th Marquis of, (i) Tyrconnel, Rory O’Donnell, 1st Earl of, (i) Tyrone, Hugh O’Neill, 2nd Earl of, (i) UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores), (i) , (ii) Ulster: plantation established, (i) ; see also Northern Ireland Ulster Unionists, (i) Union, Anglo-Scottish see Treaty of Union (Anglo-Scottish, 1707) Union Commissioners (English and Scottish), (i) union (forms of): dynastic, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) , (ix) ; aeque principaliter , (i) , (ii) ; incorporating, (i) , (ii) ; see also Nueva Planta Union of Rabassaires , (i) , (ii) ; see also viticulture Union of Arms, (i) , (ii) unionist nationalism (‘banal’ nationalism), (i) , (ii) n. 93 Unionist Party (Scotland), (i) , (ii) ; see also Conservative Party United Irishmen, (i) United Kingdom see Great Britain United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), (i) United Scotsmen, (i) United States of America: war with Spain (1898), (i) , (ii) Universal Male Suffrage Law (Spain, 1890), (i) , (ii) universities: Catalonia, (i) , (ii) ; Scotland, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) ; Spain, (i) urbanization: Catalonia, (i) ; Scotland, (i) Utrecht, Treaty of (1713), (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Vairement, Richard (Veremundus): Gesta Annalia (attrib.), (i) Valencia, kingdom of: Jaume I reconquers, (i) ; economic strength, (i) ; and internal relationships of Crown of Aragon, (i) ; in War of Spanish Succession, (i) ; imposition of Nueva Planta (i) , (ii) , (iii) Vatican Council, Second (1962–5), (i) Velasco, Don Francisco Antonio Fernández de, (i) Versailles: peace settlement and treaties (1919), (i) Vicens Vives, Jaume, (i) ; Noticia de Cataluña , (i) viceroys: title rejected by Scots, (i) , (ii) ; of Catalonia, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) ; of Peru, (i) Villahermosa, Carlos de Aragón de Gurrea de Borja, 9th Duke of, (i) , (ii) Visigoths, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) viticulture, (i) , (ii) , (iii) ; see also rabassaires Vizcaya, (i) ; see also Basque provinces Wade, General George, (i) Wales: English conquest, (i) ; incorporating union, (i) , (ii) ; referendum on devolved assembly, (i) Wallace, William, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) Walpole, Sir Robert, (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) War of Spanish Succession see Spanish Succession, War of wars, civil: English (1642–50), (i) ; Spanish (1936–9), (i) ; see also rebellions Wars of the Congregation (Scotland, 1550s), (i) Waterloo, battle of (1815), (i) Watt, James, (i) West Indies (Caribbean): trade with Spain, (i) ; immigration and settlement, (i) West Lothian question, (i) Western Isles: purchased by Alexander III from Norway, (i) Weyler, Valeriano, (i) Whigs: Junto falls (1710), (i) ; return to power under George I, (i) ; and Jacobite rebellion (1715), (i) ; supported by 2nd Duke of Argyll, (i) Whitelaw, Archibald, (i) Wilfred the Hairy, Count of Barcelona, (i) Wilhelm II, Kaiser of Germany, (i) William III (of Orange), King of Great Britain, (i) , (ii) Wilson, Harold, (i) Wilson, Woodrow, (i) wine production (Catalonia) see viticulture woollen industry (Scotland), (i) ; see also textiles workers see labour Young Scots Society, (i) Zapatero, José Luis Rodríguez, (i) , (ii) Zapatero, General Juan, (i) Zaragoza: rising (1591–2), (i) ; resists French invasion, (i)

The Death and Life of Monterey Bay: A Story of Revival
by Dr. Stephen R Palumbi Phd and Ms. Carolyn Sotka M. A.
Published 12 Nov 2010

The old mission system was largely gone, decayed into adobe ruin when the Spanish Empire fell and Mexico won its 1821 independence. But war between the former colonies of the United States and Mexico was coming and would shift the ownership of land out of Mexican hands. By 1848, California left the Mexican republic and was incorporated into the United States. Such a period of upheaval left many land tenure records shattered and lost, with disastrous consequences to the Ohlone and to the former Spanish citizens who had settled in California. It was a time of transformation from the old to the new. Far-Reaching Effects The hunters went off to other trades, and the Chinese lost their taste for otter fur.

How the Scots Invented the Modern World: The True Story of How Western Europe's Poorest Nation Created Our World and Everything in It
by Arthur Herman
Published 27 Nov 2001

As he admitted to James Boswell years later, “I got into pretty riotous and expensive society.” When he found himself swamped with bills and over three hundred pounds in debt, he put the brakes on his social life and concentrated on the work. His time in Dickson’s office had given him a firm grasp of the intricacies of the law regarding land tenure, inheritance, and estates in Scotland. Combined with his immersion in civil jurisprudence, he now had the best of all possible intellectual backgrounds: a mind broadened by rigorous understanding of theory, but also steeped in the nuances of actual practice. He also turned out to be a brilliant advocate in court, summarizing cases without fanfare but with the full force of reasoned persuasion.

…

It united the country geographically much as MacDonald had united it politically. It was a Scottish governor-general, Lord Elgin,36 who first opened the door to the independence of British North America, as Canada was then called. Governor-General Elgin carried out reforms similar to those of other Scottish colonial administrators. He abolished the remnants of feudal land tenure left over from the French and built up Canada’s education system. He signed a reciprocity agreement with the United States in 1854, putting an end to the enmity and tension between the two halves of North America, which extended back to the American Revolution. He also warned his superiors that if London did not consider granting Canadians some form of self-government, they might throw in their lot with the Americans.

The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism
by Noam Chomsky
Published 24 Oct 2014

The actual policies pursued, while benefiting a traditional and foreign elite, are not only destroying the Indians but are severely damaging the Brazilian peasant small-holders and agricultural workers and have, in fact “worsened the already severe pattern of hunger and malnourishment that characterizes the majority of the population of Brazil” (pp. 126, 132). According to Davis: One of the major results of this new settlement pattern has been the uprooting of large numbers of poor Brazilian peasants who previously formed the pioneer element in central Brazil. It must be stated categorically that the land-tenure situation of these peasant small-holders is no less precarious than that of Indian groups in the Amazon basin. In addition, all attempts to seek legal protection for the land claims of these peasant populations, on the part of such institutions as the Brazilian Catholic Church, have been met by severe repression on the part of local, state, and national officials in Brazil.78 As a result, over the past decade, agrarian protest and violence have reached epidemic proportions in several areas of Mato Grosso and central Brazil.

…

Most of the 370 young women who work at La Romana earn 30 cents to 40 cents an hour last year...Malnutrition is widespread. Says George B. Mathues, director of CARE in the Dominican Republic: “You see kids with swollen bellies all over the country, even here in Santo Domingo.” Food production is hampered by semi-feudal land tenure. At last count, less than 1% of the farmers owned 47.5% of the land, while 82% farmed fewer than 10 acres... Land reform has moved with glacial speed...Most Dominican children don’t go beyond the third grade; only one in five reaches the sixth grade.174 G&W acknowledged in 1978 that cane cutter money wages had not kept up with inflation in the years since 1966,175 and there is other evidence to the same effect,176 which suggests a probable further absolute fall in the real income of the majority and a further shift toward inequality in income shares.

Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture
by Marvin Harris
Published 1 Dec 1974

Older animals are simply tethered on short ropes and allowed to starve—a process that does not take too long if the animal is already weak and diseased. Finally, unknown numbers of decrepit cows are surreptitiously sold through a chain of Moslem and Christian middlemen and end up in the urban slaughterhouses. If we want to account for the observed proportions of cows to oxen, we must study rain, wind, water, and land-tenure patterns, not cow love. The proof of this is that the proportion of cows to oxen varies with the relative importance of different components of the agricultural system in different regions of India. The most important variable is the amount of irrigation water available for the cultivation of rice.

The Techno-Human Condition
by Braden R. Allenby and Daniel R. Sarewitz
Published 15 Feb 2011

And here we shouldn't expect a vaccine to do any better than bed nets; here the goal-creating wealth-cannot be captured and internalized by a particular technology. In fact, if creating wealth is your goal, there may be much better routes to progress than curing malaria-for example, changing patterns of land tenure, or improving levels of education. But of course these goals are themselves very hard to make progress on. Understanding a technology is not just a process of observing something "out there"; it is an integrated result of a query, a set of artifacts, and elements of social, economic, psychological, and cultural context, called forth as a whole.

ECOVILLAGE: 1001 ways to heal the planet
by Ecovillage 1001 Ways to Heal the Planet-Triarchy Press Ltd (2015)
Published 30 Jun 2015

The whole community participated in what is called ‘minga’ (community solidarity in action) by our indigenous communities; some were cooking, others were building… Our political organisation, which used to be a Communal Action Board (Junta de Acción Comunal), was transformed into the Community Council of Islas del Rosario (Consejo Comunitario de las Islas del Rosario), which I’m currently representing. We had a beautiful process of reconstructing the history of the community with the support of numerous organisations and people who believed in our struggle. With these maps, in 2006 we officially requested the Collective Title (Land Tenure) of the two islands, Isla Grande and Isleta. Several legal complications arose and our application was denied twice. Many people advised us to accept what the government was offering; individual contracts for the use of the land for a given time period. Some government representatives threatened that the community would be evicted by force if we did not accept this offer.

Empires of the Weak: The Real Story of European Expansion and the Creation of the New World Order
by Jason Sharman
Published 5 Feb 2019

These successor polities tended to build armies by assembling coalitions of warlords, drawing on the local military labor market, and supplementing these forces with European mercenaries.145 Although this enabled the creation of large armies capable of fighting European-led forces on equal terms, this fiscal-military arrangement was also brittle.146 For one thing, allies, warlords, and mercenaries could be bought off either to sit out battles, or to change sides, again following the Mughal precedent, a tactic that the EIC used to great effect on several crucial occasions including Plassey in 1757.147 Even apart from direct inducements, forces comprised of different elements owing loyalty to their particular warlord were more difficult to command, and could disintegrate into their component parts if the tide of battle turned against them.148 “The sirdars [warlords] were not bureaucrats whom the central government could transfer at will. They were military entrepreneurs who held hereditary land tenures with the right to maintain armed followers.”149 Another problem was that enlarging territories and armies by ceding revenue rights left central rulers with less and less money, making it difficult to continue to supply troops and pay mercenaries consistently.150 While these potential weaknesses were manageable in the short term, the tendency to fight repeated campaigns and sequences of wars over decades made these problems acute.

White Trash: The 400-Year Untold History of Class in America
by Nancy Isenberg
Published 20 Jun 2016

Merchants and other gentlemen hoarded the best land near the coast or along the commercial rivers, and poorer men were forced to possess remote, less desirable land. South Carolina was a poor white family’s worst nightmare.57 Oglethorpe left the colony in 1743, never to return. Three years earlier, a soldier had attempted to murder him, the musket ball tearing through his wig. He survived, but his dream for Georgia died. Over the next decade, land tenure policies were lifted, rum was allowed to flow freely, and slaves were sold surreptitiously. In 1750, settlers were formally granted the right to own slaves.58 A planter elite quickly formed, principally among transplants from the West Indies and South Carolina. By 1788, Carolinian Jonathan Bryan was the most powerful man in Georgia, with thirty-two thousand acres and 250 slaves.

…

On debtors and economic vulnerability, see Oglethorpe, Some Account of the Design, 11–12; Oglethorpe, A New and Accurate Account, 30–33; and Rodney M. Baine, “New Perspectives on Debtors in Colonial Georgia,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 77, no. 1 (Spring 1993): 1–19, esp. 4. 53. See Milton L. Ready, “Land Tenure in Trusteeship Georgia,” Agricultural History 48, no. 3 (July 1974): 353–68, esp. 353–57, 359. 54. See Translation of Reverend Mr. Dumont’s Letter to Mr. Benjamin Martyn, May 21, 1734, Egmont Papers, vol. 14207. Dumont wrote from Rotterdam, and represented a community of French Vaudois. 55.

The Handbook of Personal Wealth Management
by Reuvid, Jonathan.
Published 30 Oct 2011

This makes it even more important that investors obtain a risk spread across several geographies and species. Political and country risk A potential risk to forestry is political or regulatory change, such as restrictive environmental laws that limit or control timber harvesting practices. Further risks concern the legal framework, in particular regarding land tenure, in specific countries. In certain countries, northern Brazil for example, there is a significant risk arising from historical land ownership claims made by indigenous peoples. Global timber demand Globally, the dual impact of competition for scarce land between food, fibre and fuel uses and a continuing and increasing excess of demand over supply of wood fibre, at least for the next 20 years, is expected to result in a steady increase in timberland and timber prices.1 In recent years, technological changes and increasing personal wealth have increased utilization of wood globally, adding value to forestry.

Does Capitalism Have a Future?
by Immanuel Wallerstein , Randall Collins , Michael Mann , Georgi Derluguian , Craig Calhoun , Stephen Hoye and Audible Studios
Published 15 Nov 2013

One way of doing this is through the imposition of democratic civilian supervision over the armies and police. Another and related way for the consolidation of new democracies is through integrating their citizenry in the centrally sponsored institutions providing for the defense of human rights, social welfare, land tenure, and jobs. Perhaps this is not socialism. It is rather a new and decidedly better variety of capitalism. In the twenty-first century Latin America could at last catch up with social democratic and corporatist state transformations resembling earlier Western patterns, thus also laying foundations for a new wave of industrial development.

When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Rise of the Middle Kingdom
by Martin Jacques
Published 12 Nov 2009

Their intention was to re-create the Old World in the New World.69 In contrast to Europe, however, where capitalism was shaped by its feudal antecedents, the settlers were not constrained by pre-existing social structures or customs. In effect, they could start afresh, unencumbered by the past. This, of course, entailed the destruction of the native population of Amerindians in what we would now describe as a most brutal act of ethnic cleansing.70 While Europe was mired in time-worn patterns of land tenure, the American settlers faced no such constraints and, with the decimation of the native population, enjoyed constantly expanding territory as the mythical frontier moved ever westwards. Where Europeans possessed a strong sense of place and territory, the Americans, in contrast, formed no such attachment because they had no need of it.

…

There was the failure of the imperial state to modernize, culminating in its demise in the 1911 Revolution; the failure of the nationalist government to modernize China, unify the country, or defeat the occupying powers (notably Japan), leading to its overthrow in the 1949 Revolution; the Maoist period, which sought to sweep away much of imperial China, from Confucius and traditional dress to the old patterns of land tenure and the established social hierarchies; followed by the reform period, the rapid decline of agriculture, the rise of industry and the growing assertion of capitalist social relations. Each of these periods represents a major disjuncture in Chinese history. Yet much of what previously characterized China remains strikingly true and evident today.

The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality From the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century
by Walter Scheidel
Published 17 Jan 2017

Faced with stiffened tenant resistance, and for once expected to pay their full share of taxes topped up by special levies, landlords saw their incomes come under downward pressure. But all this fell far short of any systematic leveling as envisioned in the utopian schemes that were never put into practice—or may not even have been intended to be. The latter might be signaled by the fact that on top of generally maintaining traditional land tenure arrangements, the Taiping leadership eagerly embraced hierarchical stratification by claiming a lavish lifestyle replete with harems and palaces. The Qing’s violent destruction of the Taiping in the 1860s, which cost millions of lives from combat and famine, did not suppress an egalitarian experiment, for there was none.

…

Microcynicon: aspects of early-modern England. Loughborough, UK: self-published. Powell, Benjamin, Ford, Ryan, and Nowrasteh, Alex. 2008. “Somalia after state collapse: chaos or improvement?” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 67: 657–670. Powelson, John P. 1988. The story of land: a world history of land tenure and agrarian reform. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Poznik, G. David, et al. 2013. “Sequencing Y chromosomes resolves discrepancy in time to common ancestor of males versus females.” Science 341: 562–565. Pozzi, Luca, et al. 2014. “Primate phylogenetic relationships and divergence dates inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes.”

The Locavore's Dilemma
by Pierre Desrochers and Hiroko Shimizu
Published 29 May 2012

The Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site’s website can be found at http://cahokiamounds.org/ . 47 Because our aim in the following paragraphs is limited to the importance of transportation and economic development as they relate to food security, we limit ourselves to generally agreed upon facts rather than more controversial political debates (e.g., the impact of the land tenure system on peasant behavior, British trade policy and the nature and the actual scope and impact of public relief efforts). Concise discussions and further references on the subject can be found in Ellen Messer. 2000. “Potatoes (White).” In Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas (eds). The Cambridge World History of Food.

A Brief History of Neoliberalism
by David Harvey
Published 2 Jan 1995

/Keynesianism 56 China 132, 141, 142, 152 freedom concept 8, 10, 11, 13, 20–4 passim, 29 freedom’s prospect 186, 187, 188 paradox 152 uneven development 88, 93 Khanna, T. 216 King, D. 222 King, R. 83 Kirchner, N. 106 Kirkpatrick, D. 210 Kissinger, H. 7 Klein, N. 207 Koolhaas, R. 47 Korea see South Korea Kraev, E. 218 Krasner, S. 208 Kristol, I. 50 Krugman, P. 186, 221 Kuwait 27 Labour Party (UK) 55, 58, 61 labour/employment/working class 70 China 123, 130, 138, 141, 148–50 as commodity 70, 153, 157, 164, 167–71 consent, construction of 47–8, 50 as disposable commodity 153, 157, 164, 167–71 flexible/casual 100, 112 full 10 see also income/wages; unemployment; unions Laffer, A. 54 Lambert, J. 211 land tenure 101, 103, 159 Landler, M. 217 Lange, O. 21 Lardy, N. 215 Latin America 199 uneven development 88, 108, 109 see also Central America; South America law/regulation 159 coercive legislation 77 judiciary 78 legitimacy 80, 180–1 rolled back 161 rule of 64, 66–7 Lay, K. 77 Lebretton, J. 216 Lee, C.K. 219–20 Lee Kuan Yew 213 Lee, S.

That Wild Country: An Epic Journey Through the Past, Present, and Future of America's Public Lands
by Mark Kenyon
Published 2 Dec 2019

“Yet we live in a land of vanishing beauty, of increasing ugliness, of shrinking open space, and of an overall environment that is diminished daily by pollution and noise and blight. This, in brief, is the quiet conservation crisis of the 1960s.” Udall proved to be up for the challenge—as his time in office would eventually be seen as one of the most pro-public-land tenures in American history. As just one example of this, Udall is now credited with shepherding more national park units into existence than any other head of the US Department of the Interior. He added sixty-four new units to the system during his time in office. His support of the Wilderness Act was also crucial.

Two Nations, Indivisible: A History of Inequality in America: A History of Inequality in America
by Jamie Bronstein
Published 29 Oct 2016

In the short run, 40,000 African Americans received land grants of almost 40,000 acres.1 Promising experiments ended due to lack of wider support in Washington for confiscation and redistribution, lest such policies make people dependent on charity.2 By 1866, white plantation owners were allowed to re-enter their former lands and then to claim back lands that had been distributed to black families. Due to bureaucratic snafus, many black people had never received titles, which made their land tenure very easy to contest. Many who were deprived of their land grants despaired of being able to raise a crop without seed money and began to work for white planters under labor contracts; others were directly dispossessed. Historians differ about whether land reform was likely to have been successful.

Ten Technologies to Save the Planet: Energy Options for a Low-Carbon Future
by Chris Goodall
Published 1 Jan 2010

Deforestation in these areas looks like an intractable problem. Some forest clearing is occurring as a result of large commercial farmers wanting to add to their estates. But it also happens partly as a result of the decisions of millions of people trying to create new land on which to grow food. In many countries, land tenure law does not give clear ownership rights over these trees, making protecting the forest very difficult. States such as Brazil may be able to restrict the loss of land to soy crops and beef ranching, but telling the landless poor that they should not try to feed themselves by growing crops on cleared land is a policy that is unlikely to succeed anywhere in the world.

The Story of Work: A New History of Humankind
by Jan Lucassen
Published 26 Jul 2021

The compilers of the CEHG use the following definition of hunter-gatherers: ‘Foraging refers to subsistence based on hunting of wild animals, gathering of wild plant food, and fishing, with no domestication of plants, and no domesticated animals except the dog.’42 And as core social elements they add: ‘The basic unit of social organization of most (but not all) hunting and gathering peoples is the band, a small-scale nomadic group of fifteen to fifty people related by kinship.’ Their members share the following features: they are relatively egalitarian; they are mobile according to a pattern of concentration in larger groups and dispersion in smaller groups during part of the year; and their land tenure system is based on a common property regime, a kinship-based collective, ruled by reciprocity. Egalitarianism, sharing, generosity and reciprocity are not performed indiscriminately but primarily within the band; they also do not exclude a wide range of boundary-maintaining measures. We may suppose this is as true for hominins, including early Homo sapiens, as it is for other primates and for extant hunter-gatherers, who show variations in the ways they manage access to land and resources: ‘Sharing is not a product of an evolutionary stage or a subsistence mode, it is the outcome of a decision-making process.

…

Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1986). Kars, Marjoleine. Blood on the River: A Chronicle of Mutiny and Freedom on the Wild Coast (New York: The New Press, 2020). Karsten, Luchien. Arbeidstijdverkorting in historisch perspectief, 1817–1919 (Amsterdam: Stichting IISG, 1990). Katary, Sally L.D. ‘Land Tenure and Taxation’, in Toby Wilkinson (ed.), The Egyptian World (London/New York: Routledge, 2007), pp. 185–201. Kautilya. The Arthashastra. Edited, rearranged, translated and introduced by L.N. Rangarajan (New Delhi: Penguin, 1992). Kay, Diana & Robert Miles. Refugees or Migrant Workers? European Volunteer Workers in Britain 1946–1951 (London: Routledge, 1992).

The rough guide to walks in London and southeast England
by Helena Smith and Judith Bamber
Published 29 Dec 2008

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8*()5 The Eden Valley The High Weald Walk Penshurst to Chiddingstone Tunbridge Wells to Groombridge and back........................................ 101 and back........................................ 112 The Greensand Way Bayham Abbey Borough Green to Knole via Wadhurst to Bayham Abbey and Ightham Mote................................ 107 Hook Green.................................... 119 T he quintessential image of the Weald – the low but undulating stretch of wood and farmland between the North and South Downs – is of orchards, country cottages, oast houses and hop gardens. The system of medieval land tenure used in the area meant that estates were divided rather than inherited wholesale, with the result that this fertile land was split into smaller and smaller plots, creating a patchwork quilt of little fields and orchards enclosed by impenetrable hedgerows. A correspondingly modest architectural style predominates, with tile-hung and timberframed cottages the norm, giving the landscape a domestic appeal that is hard to resist.

Why It's Still Kicking Off Everywhere: The New Global Revolutions
by Paul Mason
Published 30 Sep 2013

In 2003 an influential UN report, The Challenge of Slums, signalled a shift away from the old slum-clearance policies and recognized that slums make a positive contribution to economic development: they house new migrants; being dense, they use land efficiently; they’re culturally diverse and harbour numerous opportunities for ragged-trousered entrepreneurs.2 ‘Even ten years ago we used to dream that cities would become slum-free,’ Mohammed Khadim of UN-Habitat had told me at the organization’s Cairo office. ‘Now the approach has changed; people see the positives. The approach now is not to clear them but improve them gradually; regularize land tenure.’ Cameron Sinclair, who runs the non-profit design firm Architecture For Humanity, goes further: A slum is a resilient urban animal, you cannot pry it away. It’s like a good parasite—there are some parasites that attack the body and you have to get rid of them. But within the city, the informal settlement is a parasite that acts in harmony with the city; keeps it in check.

Infomocracy: A Novel
by Malka Older
Published 7 Jun 2016

She projects the comparison sheets and highlights the Liberty line. Tabby picks up on it almost immediately. “Restoration, retribution … that’s not the usual rhetoric for a corporate.” “And look at this one,” Mishima says, highlighting. “Not under the IF ELECTED TO SUPERMAJORITY line, under WITHIN CENTENALS THAT SELECT. ‘Aggressive land tenure reform.’” Tabby enlarges the explanation provided by the Information worker who glossed this: WILL WORK TO CLARIFY AND/OR REALIGN LAND OWNERSHIP. “They took it at face value,” she says, pushing the tail of her sari back off her shoulder. “But you’re right. That doesn’t make any sense in the context of the positions Liberty’s been putting out for the past two years.

Mine!: How the Hidden Rules of Ownership Control Our Lives
by Michael A. Heller and James Salzman
Published 2 Mar 2021

Newkirk II, “The Great Land Robbery: The Shameful Story of How 1 Million Black Families Have Been Ripped from Their Farms,” The Atlantic, September 2019; and Lizzie Presser, “Kicked Off the Land: Why So Many Black Families Are Losing Their Property,” The New Yorker, July 22, 2019. Here is one family’s story: Emergency Land Fund, The Impact of Heir Property on Black Rural Land Tenure in The Southeastern Region of the United States (1980): 283–86. “the worst problem”: Anna Stolley Persky, “In the Cross-Heirs,” ABA Journal, May 2, 2009. “Many assume that not having a will”: Presser, “Kicked Off the Land.” “are almost always white”: Robert S. Brown, Only Six Million Acres: The Decline of Black Owned Land in the Rural South (Black Economic Research Center, 1973), 53.

Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty
by Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo
Published 25 Apr 2011

Chapter 10 1 The argument was made in the 1970s by Peter Bauer; see e.g., Peter Thomas Bauer, Dissent on Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972). 2 Ritva Reinikka and Jakob Svensson, “The Power of Information: Evidence from a Newspaper Campaign to Reduce Capture,” working paper, IIES, Stockholm University (2004). 3 See, for example, Easterly’s post on randomized control trials, available at http://aidwatchers.com/2009/07/development-experiments-ethical-feasible-useful/. 4 See, for example, Jeffrey Sachs, “Who Beats Corruption,” available at http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/sachs106/English. 5 Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 6 Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Why Nations Fail (forthcoming, Crown, 2012). 7 See, for example,Tim Besley and Torsten Persson, “Fragile States and Development Policy” (manuscript, November 2010), which argues that fragile states are a key symptom of underdevelopment in the world and that such states are incapable of delivering basic services to their citizens. 8 Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson, “The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation,” American Economic Review 91 (5) (2001): 1369—1401. 9 Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer, “History, Institutions, and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India,” American Economic Review 95 (4) (2005): 1190—1213. 10 Dwyer Gunn, “Can ‘Charter Cities’ Change the World? A Q&A with Paul Romer,” New York Times, September 29, 2009; and see “Charter Cities,” available at http://www.chartercities.org. 11 Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); and Paul Collier, Wars, Guns, and Votes: Democracy in Dangerous Places (New York: HarperCollins, 2009). 12 William Easterly, “The Burden of Proof Should Be on Interventionists—Doubt Is a Superb Reason for Inaction,” Boston Review (July–August 2009). 13 See Rajiv Chandrasekaram, Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Inside Iraq’s Green Zone (New York: Knopf, 2006), as well as Easterly’s insightful critique of the army operation manual, available at http://www.huffingtonpost.com/william-easterly/will-us-armys-development_b_217488.html. 14 William Easterly, “Institutions: Top Down or Botton Up,” American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 98 (2) (2008): 95–99. 15 See The White Man’s Burden, p. 133. 16 Ibid., p. 72. 17 William Easterly, “Trust the Development Experts—All 7 Billion,” Financial Times, May 28, 2008. 18 The White Man’s Burden, p. 73. 19 Marianne Bertrand, Simeon Djankov, Rema Hanna, and Sendhil Mullainathan, “Obtaining a Driving License in India: An Experimental Approach to Studying Corruption,” Quarterly Journal of Economics (November 2007): 1639–1676. 20 See his presentation on the subject, available at http://dri.fas.nyu.edu/object/withoutknowinghow.html. 21 Rohini Pande and Christopher Udry, “Institutions and Development: A View from Below,” Yale Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper 928 (2005). 22 Monica Martinez-Bravo, Gerard Padro-i-Miquel, Nancy Qian, and Yang Yao, “Accountability in an Authoritarian Regime: The Impact of Local Electoral Reforms in Rural China,” Yale University (2010), manuscript. 23 Benjamin Olken, “Monitoring Corruption: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Indonesia,” Journal of Political Economy 115 (2) (April 2007): 200–249. 24 Abhijit Banerjee, Esther Duflo, Daniel Keniston, and Nina Singh, “Making Police Reform Real: The Rajasthan Experiment,” draft paper, MIT (2010). 25 Thomas Fujiwara, “Voting Technology, Political Responsiveness, and Infant Health: Evidence from Brazil,” University of British Columbia, mimeo (2010). 26 World Bank, World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work for Poor People (2003). 27 Raghabendra Chattopadhyay and Esther Duflo, “Women as Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment in India,” Econometrica 72 (5) (2004): 1409–1443. 28 Leonard Wantchekon, “Clientelism and Voting Behavior: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Benin,” World Politics 55 (3) (2003): 399–422. 29 Abhijit Banerjee and Rohini Pande, “Ethnic Preferences and Politician Corruption,” KSG Working Paper RWP07-031 (2007). 30 Nicholas Van de Walle, “Presidentialism and Clientelism in Africa’s Emerging Party Systems,” Journal of Modern African Studies 41 (2) (June 2003): 297–321. 31 Abhijit Banerjee, Donald Green, Jennifer Green, and Rohini Pande, “Can Voters Be Primed to Choose Better Legislators?

Pinpoint: How GPS Is Changing Our World
by Greg Milner
Published 4 May 2016

The country was later resurveyed based on the WGS, and in 2012 the government established a series of continuously operating GPS receivers linked to the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), the ultra-accurate frame used by geophysicists to monitor plate movement. The Burkina Faso government’s embrace of this highest of high-tech physical reckoning is an attempt to modernize a land tenure and management system rife with instability and inaccuracy. A World Bank report predicts that the system will help “avoid land ownership overlapping . . . and enhance social equity and peace.” The ITRF is considered the ultimate mathematic representation of the earth: its size and the exact location of its center.

We Are All Fast-Food Workers Now: The Global Uprising Against Poverty Wages
by Annelise Orleck
Published 27 Feb 2018

Her mother did the best she could.1 Coronacion’s experiences left her with a visceral sense that the fight for workers’ rights is inseparable from struggles for women’s rights. “You can’t dismantle capitalism without dismantling patriarchy,” she says. “We have a lot of work to do.” Sister Nice Coronacion credits her mother with politicizing her. “She was a community leader who fought for land tenure for squatters. Growing up, I called where I lived a home because, if there is love it is a home, but . . .” She pauses. “Still, I know we were lucky. We never lived in the danger zone, near the rivers where it floods.” We visit the Manila danger zone. Small children squat in the dirt, diligently sweeping makeshift drains so that no water seeps into the rooms, lean-tos, and shacks where millions of families live, eat, and sleep.

The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor
by David S. Landes
Published 14 Sep 1999

One could, then, argue, as numerous economists have, that American priority in development was predetermined by nature—the luck of the draw. Recently, however, scholars have advanced a more complex geographical explanation, one that links natural circumstances to culture and institutions.3 The argument here is that geography dictates crops and the mode of cultivation, hence the nature of land tenure and the distribution of wealth; while these in turn are critical to the pace and character of development. Where society is divided between a privileged few landowners and a large mass of poor, dependent, perhaps unfree laborers—in effect, between a school for laziness (or self-indulgence) over against a slough of despond—what the incentive to change and improve?

…

And so, during those frontier days of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the technological possibilities were almost endless, and American industry went on from one success to another. Other countries could copy; some indeed made forays along similar lines. But these older societies did not have the tabula rasa and the optimistic, open culture that eased the task of the American farmer and manufacturer. They had to work with cramped systems of land tenure, peasants (no peasants in the United States) who scrimped on equipment to add to their holdings, great landlords who saw land more as the foundation of status and style than as capital;* and with craftsmen who saw mechanization as a personal diminution, an offense to status, a threat to jobs. The older countries had their machine-breakers; America did not.

Whole Earth Discipline: An Ecopragmatist Manifesto
by Stewart Brand
Published 15 Mar 2009

They include (to quote a Gates-funded National Research Council report):controlled grazing, mulching with organic matter, applying manure and biosolids, use of cover crops in the rotation cycle, agroforestry, contour farming, hedgerows, terracing, plastic mulch for erosion control, no-till or conservation tillage, retention of crop residue, appropriate use of water and irrigation, and the use of integrated nutrient management, including the judicious use of chemical fertilizers. Land-use planning and land-tenure reform are policy tools to accompany those techniques. Africa has particularly horrendous pests. Tsetse flies torture the livestock, parasitic weeds such as Striga (witchweed) attack everything that grows, a new version of wheat rust from Uganda now threatens wheat crops worldwide, and flocks of millions of the red-billed quelea devour entire harvests of sorghum, keeping generations of children out of school to chase the birds from the fields.

The Land Grabbers: The New Fight Over Who Owns the Earth
by Fred Pearce
Published 28 May 2012

Post-independence African states either expunged the customary rights or overrode them by nationalizing the common pastures and forests in the name of socialism. Socialism is out of favor today. So the great sell-off has begun—in the name of economic development. Parcel it all out and all will be well. Alden Wily wants neither state control nor privatization. Instead she wants a renaissance for customary land tenure, by enshrining it in national laws. That is no panacea. As we saw in Ghana, tribal chiefs can be as venal as government ministers when a foreigner comes calling with a checkbook. But without some change to vest land rights in the community, she believes that most of the commons are doomed. “Half a billion Africans will remain tenants of a state that can perfectly legally sell or lease their farms and commons from beneath their feet.”

The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of America's Man-Made Landscape
by James Howard Kunstler
Published 31 May 1993

Leading citizens engaged in speculation. For instance, George Washington owned land in Virginia, Pennsylva­ nia, and the Ohio country. Banker Robert Morris, who almost single­ handedly financed the war, acquired enormous tracts in western New York. The Revolution swept away the prerogatives of the Crown associated with English land tenure in America. In America, ownership meant freedom from the meddling of nobles, the right to freely dispose of land by sale at a profit, the ability to move from one place to another without hindrance, to enjoy the social respect of other small holders, and to have a voice in matters of community interest.

The Code of Capital: How the Law Creates Wealth and Inequality
by Katharina Pistor
Published 27 May 2019

Swamy, “The Hazards of Piecemeal Reform: British Civil Courts and the Credit Market in Colonial India,” Journal of Development Economics 58 (1999):1–24 offer a succinct summary of these reforms and their economic and political effects. For an analysis of the long-term effects of land reforms undertaken by British colonizers on the productivity of the land, see also Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer, “History, Institutions, and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India,” American Economic Review 95, no. 4 (2005):1190–1213, showing that land that was given to landlords continued to have lower productivity rates even in post-independence India. 65. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johson, and James A. Robinson, “The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation,” American Economic Review 91, no. 5 (2001):1369–1401. 66.

Worldmaking After Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination
by Adom Getachew
Published 5 Feb 2019

Ibid. 62. Ibid., 93, 95. Changes to the Cape Colony franchise in 1892 raised the salary and property requirements for exercising the vote. Though not explicitly racial, it disenfranchised most Africans. This was followed in 1894 with the Glen Grey Act, which instituted individual (rather than communal) land tenure as well as a labor tax directed at natives, particularly the Xhosa. Crucially, land ownership through this act could not be used to fulfill the property qualifications for the parliamentary franchise. 63. Ibid., 94–­95. 64. Jan Smuts, “Native Policy in Africa,” in Africa and Some World Problems (Oxford: Clarendon, 1930), 77. 65.

The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood
by Rashid Khalidi
Published 31 Aug 2006

Like them, for four centuries it had been part of the Ottoman Empire, a powerful state that strongly influenced many aspects of the history and social makeup of the region. In spite of the myriad differences among Middle Eastern countries, Palestine’s level of economic development, its social structure and patterns of land tenure, and the political and ideological trends that affected it were all broadly similar to those in neighboring Arab countries, particularly those immediately adjacent to it to the north and east. It was similar as well in some respects to other Middle Eastern states. In developing a meaningful comparative context for Palestine, these are manifestly the countries to examine.

The World in 2050: Four Forces Shaping Civilization's Northern Future
by Laurence C. Smith
Published 22 Sep 2010

Trapped on the Kola Peninsula—the militarized, industrialized heart of the Russian North—they are mostly unemployed with no parliament. What few reindeer herders remain complain of grazing lands privatized and closed, and horrid environmental pollution from mining, smelting, and leaking radiation from old nuclear reactors. Russian soldiers sometimes shoot their animals to eat or for fun.477 Snared in poverty, lacking land tenure, and with no political voice, they are quickly losing their aboriginal language. Of Sápmi’s four fragmented pieces, Russia’s has the most uncertain future. The Mi-8 Time Machine We thudded over the taiga in an orange Soviet-era Mi-8 helicopter, crammed against one of its little porthole windows.

Empire: What Ruling the World Did to the British
by Jeremy Paxman
Published 6 Oct 2011

Similar things were happening in Rhodesia, but to a rather different class of white settler. While Kenya was for the upper classes, Cecil Rhodes’s creation offered to many of the servicemen demobilized at the end of the Second World War land and wealth they could never have found at home, with vast swathes of the best land reserved for them. To give a sense of what this meant, the Land Tenure Act of 1969, a statute which purported to offer a fairer division of the spoils between whites and blacks, meant that Rhodesia’s 250,000 white people could now own only as much land as five million black citizens. This promotion of white settlement in the twentieth century might have been comprehensible at the height of the empire, for it offered agricultural development and the creation of a cadre of imperial loyalists.

Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States
by Francis Fukuyama
Published 1 Jan 2006

Unless otherwise noted, all figures are in U.S. dollars and are Geary-Khamis (G-K) index 1990 purchasing power parity dollars. While this is the most comprehensive income series available, Maddison’s figures are not universally accepted by historians. Indeed, at times they constitute only rough guesses. Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer, “History, Institutions, and Economic Performance: The Legacy of Colonial Land Tenure Systems in India,” unpublished manuscript, Department of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 2002, p. 1. When, in 1969, Kuznets posed the question of whether Europe was wealthier than the rest of the world in 1750, his estimate was that the ratio of the lowest to the highest per capita income in the world was 1:2, perhaps even 1:2.5.

The Regency Revolution: Jane Austen, Napoleon, Lord Byron and the Making of the Modern World
by Robert Morrison
Published 3 Jul 2019

The government of Java, he believed, “should consider the inhabitants without reference to bare mercantile profits.” 38 Such views on what we would now call “corporate social responsibility” were far ahead of their time and put Raffles decidedly at odds with a trading company fixated on making money. He compounded his problems by pushing so hard to implement his radical reforms of the land tenure system that he lost important sources of government revenue. When the island’s paper currency began to depreciate, Raffles resorted to selling public lands without the proper authorization. By 1816 the directors of the East India Company had had enough, and they recalled him. Broken in health and shattered by the death of his beloved wife Olivia, Raffles returned to England, where he threw himself into the task of writing a two-volume History of Java.

Africa: A Biography of the Continent
by John Reader
Published 5 Nov 1998

The same principle of private interest applies to the land. With the exception of springs, river and pond water, communal buildings, and the main trackways between villages, every square metre of the island is privately owned. Even the rocky outcrops and the bushes around them belong to known individuals. Traditional systems of land tenure among indigenous farmers throughout Africa granted only rights of use – rights that could be revoked, or were forfeited if the land was left uncultivated. Africa's indigenous farmers were more concerned about using land than owning it.25 By contrast, all the land on Ukara belonged to individual families and could be sold or even left uncultivated with impunity.

…

In this way literacy transformed the flexibility of customary practice into hard, immutable, prescriptive law. Customary law had always taken contemporary assessments into account when making its judgements, but once a particular set of interpretations was codified in colonial law it became rigid and unable to reflect change in the future. In land-tenure disputes, for instance, ‘colonial officers expected the courts to enforce long-established custom rather than current opinion’.15 Common official stereotypes about African customary land law thus came to be used by colonial officials in assessing the legality of current decisions, and so came to be incorporated in ‘customary’ systems of tenure.

To the Ends of the Earth: Scotland's Global Diaspora, 1750-2010
by T M Devine
Published 25 Aug 2011

Between 1809 and 1850, after which Irish numbers did increase, the Irish-born made up only 5 per cent of new recruits.53 It was partly because of this extensive Scottish presence in the governance of the subcontinent that Scottish philosophical ideas, framed and developed within the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, left such a deep impression on Indian administrative history, as Scottish officials such as Sir John Malcolm, Sir Thomas Munro and Mountstuart Elphinstone applied a whole range of ideas from the Scottish Enlightenment to issues of land tenure, administration and judicial systems.54 3 In accounting for Scottish over-representation in the management of the eighteenth-century British Empire, the focus has traditionally been on the Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707, the legal foundation for engagement with the Empire. Comparison with the Irish commercial relationship with the Empire does confirm the Scottish advantages gained in 1707.

Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa
by Jason Stearns
Published 29 Mar 2011

No other image plagues the Congolese imagination as much as that of the Tutsi aggressor. No other sentiment has justified as much violence in the Congo as anti-Tutsi ideology. Again and again, in the various waves of conflict in the Congo, the Tutsi community has taken center stage, as victims and killers. This antagonism is fueled by struggles over land tenure, citizenship, and access to resources, but also and most directly by popular prejudice and a vicious circle of revenge. The wars that began in the eastern Congo in 1993 acted as a vector to these prejudices, as Tutsi soldiers and politicians took lead roles in every Rwandan-backed insurgency since then.

Sacred Economics: Money, Gift, and Society in the Age of Transition
by Charles Eisenstein
Published 11 Jul 2011

In England, free alienation of land was generally not possible until the fifteenth century.9 Thereafter, the vast communal lands of England rapidly came under private ownership thanks to the Enclosure Acts, a process paralleled across the continent, for example through the “emancipation” of the serfs. Lewis Hyde writes, Whereas before a man could fish in any stream and hunt in any forest, now he found there were individuals who claimed to be the owners of these commons. The basis of land tenure had shifted. The medieval serf had been almost the opposite of a property owner: the land had owned him. He could not move freely from place to place, and yet he had inalienable rights to the piece of land to which he was attached. Now men claimed to own the land and offered to rent it out at a fee.

Apocalypse Never: Why Environmental Alarmism Hurts Us All
by Michael Shellenberger
Published 28 Jun 2020

But creating those parks involved the eviction of local communities, which has led to disputes and violence. “Virunga Park was created during colonial times,” noted Helga Rainer, a conservationist with the Great Ape Program. “Land is the resource at the heart of the conflict, and it was European colonialists who changed or confused land tenure systems.”38 Scientists estimate that between five and “tens of millions” of people have been displaced from their homes by conservationists since the creation of Yosemite National Park in California in 1864. A Cornell University sociologist estimated that Europeans created at least fourteen million conservation refugees in Africa alone.39 Displacing people from their lands wasn’t incidental to conservation but rather central to it.

Who Owns England?: How We Lost Our Green and Pleasant Land, and How to Take It Back
by Guy Shrubsole
Published 1 May 2019

But what is lost on modern audiences is that Shakespeare likely intended the character of Kent to symbolise an older, wiser way of apportioning inherited land. By speaking up on behalf of Cordelia, Lear’s youngest, Kent is defending the Kentish custom of gavelkind, which saw inheritances carved up equally between heirs regardless of age. For centuries, the county of Kent has practised this ancient, egalitarian system of land tenure, a survival from a time before the Norman Conquest. A monument in a churchyard on the outskirts of the Kentish village of Swanscombe commemorates this tradition. Amid old graves and beneath the dark branches of a gnarled yew tree lies a stone memorial, portraying Norman soldiers in chainmail being confronted by Kentish warriors.

How to Read a Book
by Mortimer J. Adler and Charles van Doren
Published 14 Jun 1972

In addition to his writings, he was one of the founders of the first women’s suffrage society and, in 1865, consented to become a member of Parliament. Voting with the radical wing of the Liberal Party, he took an active part in the debates on Disraeli’s Reform Bill and promoted the measures which he had long advocated, such as the representation of women, the reform of London government, and the alteration of land tenure in Ireland. Largely because of his support of unpopular measures, he was defeated for re-election. He retired to his cottage in Avignon, which had been built so that he might be close to the grave of his wife, and died there May 8, 1873. Note that the questions in these tests are not all of the same type: there are several kinds of multiple-choice questions and some essay questions as well.

Civilization: The West and the Rest
by Niall Ferguson
Published 28 Feb 2011

A civilization, as the etymology of the word suggests, revolves around its cities, and in many ways it is cities that are the heroes of this book.3 But a city’s laws (civil or otherwise) are as important as its walls; its constitution and customs – its inhabitants’ manners (civil or otherwise) – as important as its palaces.4 Civilization is as much about scientists’ laboratories as it is about artists’ garrets. It is as much about forms of land tenure as it is about landscapes. The success of a civilization is measured not just in its aesthetic achievements but also, and surely more importantly, in the duration and quality of life of its citizens. And that quality of life has many dimensions, not all easily quantified. We may be able to estimate the per-capita income of people around the world in the fifteenth century, or their average life expectancy at birth.

Pacific: Silicon Chips and Surfboards, Coral Reefs and Atom Bombs, Brutal Dictators, Fading Empires, and the Coming Collision of the World's Superpowers
by Simon Winchester
Published 27 Oct 2015

Even so, all empires, benign or brutal, inevitably fade, and the drawing down of French influence in South East Asia would get under way swiftly, soon after the Second World War. It is conventional to see France’s humiliating defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in far northern Vietnam in 1954 as the beginning of the end of France’s land tenure in the western Pacific. But one other episode, half-forgotten now, marks the ultimate cause of the whole unlovely mess, of which Dien Bien Phu was but one part. It occurred in 1945, and it concerns a much-decorated British Indian Army officer named Douglas David Gracey. The strange events that briefly enfolded him offer invaluable context for what would occur in the years following.

How Asia Works
by Joe Studwell
Published 1 Jul 2013

Ha-Joon Chang, Bad Samaritans: Rich Nations, Poor Policies and the Threat to the Developing World (London: Random House, 2007). Ha-Joon Chang and Gabriel Palma (eds.) Financial Liberalisation and the Asian Crisis (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001). Ching Peng, My Side of History (Singapore: Media Masters 2003). Mark Cleary and Peter Eaton, Tradition and Reform: Land Tenure and Rural Development in South-east Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). R. H Coase, ‘The Institutional Structure of Production’, American Economic Review 82, no. 4 (September 1992). Klaus W. Deininger, Land Policies and Land Reform (Washington DC: World Bank Publications, 2004). Klaus W.

Sugar: A Bittersweet History
by Elizabeth Abbott
Published 14 Sep 2011

In the early nineteenth century, Polynesian Hawaii was evangelized by missionaries sent by the American Board of Foreign Missions. Until then, as the U.S. government acknowledged in 1993 in its official apology to the Hawaiian people, “the Native Hawaiian people lived in a highly organized, self-sufficient, subsistent social system based on communal land tenure with a sophisticated language, culture, and religion.”564 In 1835, American Ladd and Company leased land on Kauai to grow and mill sugarcane, which became Hawaii’s major crop. Many missionaries founded plantations: the Alexanders, Baldwins, Castles, Cookes, Rices and Wilcoxes. “A plantation is a means of civilization,” the Planters’ Monthly proselytized.

Lonely Planet Panama (Travel Guide)
by Lonely Planet and Carolyn McCarthy
Published 30 Jun 2013

Over the years, outlandish proposals have ranged from the government creating an 80-hotel resort complex known as ‘New Cancun’ to earlier plans to put Damani beach in the hands of US developers. Opposition of most Ngöbe peoples to all these proposals from outsiders has been crucial in stopping the projects. Large-scale tourist development would have irreversible effects on this fragile coastal ecosystem, home to critically endangered species. Ngöbe peoples’ land tenure, access to resources, community cohesion and traditional culture would also certainly be endangered. Environmental groups and Ngöbe communities are beginning to organize small-scale ecological tourism alternatives. But the hot debate about big development is unlikely to ebb in the coming years.

The Cigarette: A Political History
by Sarah Milov
Published 1 Oct 2019

Ibid., 214; Report of the Federal Trade Commission, 120; Reavis Cox, Competition in the American Tobacco Industry, 1911–1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1933), 146. 90. Woofter, Plight of Cigarette Tobacco, 48. 91. “The True Inwardness of the Tobacco Situation,” Progressive Farmer, September 25, 1920, 16. 92. The literature on land tenure and credit markets in the rural South is vast. See Gavin Wright Old South–New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy since the Civil War (New York: Basic Books, 1986); Harold D. Woodman, New South–New Law: The Legal Foundations of Credit and Labor Relations in the Postbellum Agricultural South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995).

Kingdom of Olives and Ash: Writers Confront the Occupation
by Michael Chabon
Published 29 May 2017

* A World Bank report found that potential revenue from Area C for Palestinians would be at least USD 2.2 billion per year, or 23 percent of the Palestinian GDP; the total potential value added would be USD 3.4 billion, or 35 percent of the GDP. See “West Bank and Gaza—Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy,” World Bank, 2 October 2013. * “State land,” a term taken from the Ottoman land-tenure system. * B’Tselem is the Israeli Information Centre for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories; Ta’ayush is the Arab-Jewish Partnership, Israelis and Palestinians striving together to end the Israeli occupation and to achieve full civil equality through daily nonviolent direct action. * A sampling of the July 2015 international media: Diaa Hadid, “How a Palestinian Hamlet of 340 Drew Global Attention,” New York Times, 23 July 2015; Erin McLaughlin, Kareem Khadder, and Bryony Jones, “Life in Susiya, the Palestinian Village Under Threat from Israeli Bulldozers,” CNN, 24 July 2015, www.cnn.com/2015/07/24/middleeast/susiya-palestinian-village-under-threat/; Peter Beaumont, “EU Protests against Israeli Plans to Demolish Palestinian Village,” The Guardian, 21 July 2015

Coffeeland: One Man's Dark Empire and the Making of Our Favorite Drug
by Augustine Sedgewick
Published 6 Apr 2020

Even under the best conditions, coffee trees yield mature harvests only after four to seven years of attentive cultivation.29 And on top of all this, in El Salvador more than anywhere else in Latin America, the liberal hope for economic development through exports, and particularly through coffee, ran into the additional problem of scarce land.30 The country was small—about the size of Massachusetts—and perhaps a quarter or more of its arable land was already under the control of Indian and peasant subsistence farmers, the legacy of a system of communal land tenure held over from the colonial period.31 In many cases, it simply wasn’t clear who owned a particular plot of land, and this ambiguity discouraged investment in risky commercial crops. If coffee was going to transform El Salvador, it would have to take over. * * * — THE SALVADORAN GOVERNMENT first backed coffee in 1846, offering tax breaks to anyone who planted more than 5,000 trees and exempting workers employed on coffee plantations from national military service.32 These early incentives produced scant results, but in 1859, under President Gerardo Barrios, whose travels in Europe as a young man had inspired him to “regenerate” his home country through economic development, the government began to distribute parcels of land to those who agreed to cultivate coffee there.33 Later, the state also gave tens of thousands of coffee seedlings to large landowners and peasants alike.34 Thanks to such subsidies, the area of land planted in coffee increased steadily, and a wide swath of Salvadoran society got in on it: merchants, artisans, teachers, professionals, commercial farmers—in the beginning, “even the poorest people had their plantings.”35 The state-led campaign for coffee centered in the western highlands around the Santa Ana Volcano.

From Peoples into Nations
by John Connelly
Published 11 Nov 2019

When Romanian peasants revolted in 1784 against arbitrary lord-subject relations, their animus focused on Catholic and foreign Hungarian “tyrants.”47 In the Serb lands, Muslims constituted the landowners as well as urban populations, and to be a peasant became synonymous with being a Serb.48 Orthodox Serbs saw Slav Muslims as “neither Serbs, nor Turks, neither water nor wine, but as odious renegades.” Churches dating back centuries featured images of severed Turk heads, and “warrior-saints” stabbing Turkish-looking soldiers.49 People in border areas denoted wickedness in terms of Muslims: “worse than a Turk.”50 In Bohemia, the land tenure system was more equitable, but travelers had no doubt that the Czech speakers constituted an underclass. The Prussian writer and adventurer Baron von Pöllnitz noted two things from his visit of the 1730s: first, there was no upper class on the planet more addicted to expensive living than that of Prague, and second, their noblesse obliged nothing at all.

…

The existential threat of the wars of succession of the 1740s convinced the Habsburg rulers that if their realm was to survive, it had to be guided by a strong centralizing state. Maria Theresa and later Joseph saw that other powers of the time—England, France, and Russia—were relatively uniform, in contrast to their own hodgepodge of territories, some gained by conquest, some through inheritance and marriage, hopelessly fragmented by multiple legal codes, systems of land tenure, and rights of local estates, including those of the church. The jumble of varying and competing competences meant that authorities in Vienna could not fully tap the mineral, agricultural, or human riches of their holdings. Land was tilled inefficiently because it was under the control of a gentry caste that had little incentive to improve it and was mostly protected from sale (and thus from markets and the pressures of competition from more rational farming).

Andrew Carnegie
by David Nasaw
Published 15 Nov 2007

Andrew’s Hall on the subject of “Home Rule in America,” and then drove to the Grangemouth Town Hall to personally mark the opening of a newly built Carnegie free library. Reveling in his newfound celebrity as “something of a public man,” he accompanied Louise to the Grangemouth Dockyard Company for the christening of a Mexican steamer, the Tabasqueño. At the luncheon following the launch, Carnegie delivered his second speech of the day on, among other topics, land tenure, the Corn Laws, and the necessity for the British to emulate the Americans and “cease primogeniture, entails, and settlements.”28 Carnegie seized every occasion to get into print. His remarks in Grangemouth were recorded and published alongside his Glasgow and Stirling speeches in the Dunfermline Saturday Press, then reprinted by him in pamphlet form for distribution to friends, family, admirers, and his libraries and reading rooms.

…

As the laird of Skibo, Carnegie would become a post-feudal landlord with responsibilities for the hundreds who lived and worked on his land, but had no legal rights to it. Earlier in the century, Scottish landlords had had almost absolute rights to their land; the tenant farmers who lived and worked it almost none. But after a series of revolts in the Highlands and the passage of the Crofters Act of 1886, the laws governing land tenure had been changed to provide tenants with some protection. This almost guaranteed that Skibo, like other Highland estates, was destined to continue leaking money, until and unless Carnegie spent large sums to improve the land, attract new crofters, cottars, and day laborers, and make it possible for the protected tenants to pay their rents.

The Rough Guide to Brazil
by Rough Guides
Published 22 Sep 2018

Artefacts, charts and written explanations trace the country’s development from the moment of discovery to the proclamation of the Republic in 1889 – a fascinating insight into the nature of imperial conquest and subsequent colonial culture. The structure of sixteenth-century Brazilian society is clearly demonstrated, for example, including the system of sesmarias, enormous royal land grants which are the basis of Brazil’s highly unequal land tenure system to this day. Scale models and imaginative displays illustrate Brazil’s economic history up to the nineteenth century, including the slave-labour plantation system that produced – at different times – sugar cane, cattle, cotton, rubber and coffee, as well as the transition from slavery to free labour and the importance of immigration to Brazil.

…

In the developed South relations between trade unions and employers went from bad to worse, as workers struggled to protect their wages against rising inflation. But it was in the Northeast that tension was greatest, as a result of the Peasant Leagues movement. Despite industrial modernization, the rural region was still stuck in a time-warped land-tenure system, moulded in the colonial period and in many ways unchanged since then. Rural labourers, under the charismatic leadership of Francisco Julião and the governor of Pernambuco, Miguel Arrães, began forming cooperatives and occupying estates to press their claim for agrarian reform; the estate owners cried communism and openly agitated for a military coup.

Strange Rebels: 1979 and the Birth of the 21st Century
by Christian Caryl
Published 30 Oct 2012

The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy, Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, 219. 27. Ibid., 233. 28. Ibid., 258. 29. Margaret Thatcher, Campbell, 2:625. 30. National Review, Congdon, 1993. CHAPTER 24: SOCIALISM WITH CHINESE CHARACTERISTICS 1. “Crossing the River While Feeling the Rocks: Land-Tenure Reform in China,” John W. Bruce and Zongmin Li, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 2009, http://www.ifpri.org/publication/crossing-river-while-feeling-rocks. 2. Fujian was also home to the Xiamen Special Economic Zone, the only SEZ created in 1979 that was outside of Guangdong Province. 3.

Order Without Design: How Markets Shape Cities
by Alain Bertaud
Published 9 Nov 2018

If a plan of action to remove a potential supply bottleneck is implemented quickly, it could prevent a further large increase in housing prices and a future affordability crisis that would have serious consequences for the welfare of the population and city productivity. The presence of blinking indicators by themselves does not suggest an automatic diagnosis, and they need to be interpreted in the local context. For instance, a rapid increase in housing prices could be caused by poorly formulated regulations, by land tenure issues, or by a lack of investment in primary infrastructure and transport. Or in a more benign way, by a large increase in households’ income and in housing quality. Only after planners and urban economists have been able to establish a correct diagnosis will it be possible to design a strategy that will bring back the indicators to a value that would predict a return to smooth sailing.

The Aristocracy of Talent: How Meritocracy Made the Modern World
by Adrian Wooldridge
Published 2 Jun 2021

The onus is on individuals to compete for political positions on the basis of their talents and virtues rather than for the state to micromanage things from on high. The revolutionaries abolished the two great principles at the heart of the old society: the feudal principle that defined the relationship between masters and dependants on the basis of land tenure and the dynastic principle that put a family at the heart of power. Individuals acquired inalienable rights based on their common humanity rather than on their membership of a class or clique or status group. The idea that the royal household forms the nucleus of the state was abolished. This revolutionary philosophy confronted the French with the great questions at the heart of modernity.

The Climate Book: The Facts and the Solutions
by Greta Thunberg
Published 14 Feb 2023

Many farmers are stuck in supply, management, insurance and loan contracts that leave little wriggle room for more progressive approaches; if rewritten, these contracts could be powerful vehicles for sustainability. Likewise, a crescendo of voices now calls for repurposing the more than $500 billion worth of subsidies that go into agriculture each year, to support more sustainable practices and trajectories. And progress on deeper societal issues, such as women’s equality and land tenure, would also accelerate positive change in agriculture. For change-makers who are not farmers, some modest advice on remodelling the future of farming: remember that we need action in the three interconnected domains of diet, food waste and agriculture, and at multiple scales. Your individual choices make a difference, so knowing where your food comes from and making conscious choices is the first step; policies and markets matter tremendously, so strategic, collective advocacy and engagement can create larger-scale change; and our food system is an outcome of wider issues of social justice, so your activism in spheres such as women’s rights, business ethics and law or government transparency will shape the future of our food and our climate. / 4.14 Mapping Emissions in an Industrial World John Barrett and Alice Garvey The world we live in has, quite literally, been built by ‘industry’— a term which describes all the economic activity related to extracting or growing raw materials, processing those materials and transforming them into the infrastructure we inhabit and the products we buy.

Lonely Planet Sri Lanka
by Lonely Planet

As people celebrated the monthly poya (full moon) festivities, the waves of a tsunami pummelled the country, killing 30,000 people and leaving many more injured, homeless and orphaned. Initial optimism that the nation would come together in the face of catastrophe soon faded into arguments over aid distribution, reconstruction, and land tenure and ownership. Meanwhile, Kumaratunga, seeking to extend her presidential term, sought to alter the constitution. Thwarted by a Supreme Court ruling, presidential elections were set for 2005. Among the contenders, two candidates were the most likely victors – the then prime minister, Mahinda Rajapaksa, and opposition leader, Ranil Wickremasinghe.

The Rough Guide to Devon & Cornwall
by Robert Andrews

Modern times Maladministration and corruption of their local stewards combined with regular crop failure reduced the local population to a fruitless struggle for subsistence over the next couple of centuries. Conditions improved only with the arrival in 1834 of a new leaseholder, Augustus Smith, who, despite his despotic methods, implemented far-reaching reforms that included the construction of roads, the overhaul of the land-tenure system and the introduction of compulsory education thirty years before it became law on the mainland. Smith’s work was continued after his death in 1872 by his nephew Lieutenant Dorrien-Smith, who was mainly responsible for introducing flower-farming to the archipelago (his descendant, Robert Dorrien-Smith, is the current leaseholder of Tresco and owner of Bryher’s Hell Bay Hotel); this quickly became the economic lifeblood of the community and continues to be of prime importance today.

Thank You for Being Late: An Optimist's Guide to Thriving in the Age of Accelerations
by Thomas L. Friedman
Published 22 Nov 2016

He explained: At a moment of need, callers use their own simple mobile phones to proactively retrieve information across a range of topics. Callers dial a toll-free number anytime, anywhere and listen to a menu of options: “Would you like to know about: Health? Press one. Agriculture? Press two. Environment? Press three. Water and sanitation? Press four. Land tenure? Press five. Micro finance? Press six. Family planning? Press seven.” We use the same out-of-the-box software that every 1-800 number uses—“Press one to continue in English. Press two to switch to Spanish.” But we repurpose it so illiterate audiences can use their telephone keypad to select and listen to prerecorded messages free of charge and on demand.

Heaven's Command (Pax Britannica)
by Jan Morris
Published 22 Dec 2010

The original intention to supply a nobleman and a bishop as spiritual and temporal heads of the colony unfortunately languished when no nobleman could be persuaded to emigrate and the bishop changed his mind after a month in the settlement: but they made a start with the church, the school and the library, they painfully worked out details of land tenure, grazing rights, Church endowments and squatting privileges, and they presently settled into a reasonably ordered and prosperous routine. It was all very English. Transplanted oaks and plane trees flourished, and in their branches chirped and procreated the skylarks, blackbirds, sparrows, greenfinches, yellow-hammers, magpies, plovers and starlings misguidedly brought from home.

A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy
by Joel Mokyr
Published 8 Jan 2016

Many scholars have shown that while the Chinese relied on different institutional forms of contract enforcement and dispute resolution, these were strong enough to create a well-functioning market economy.7 Furthermore, the Chinese state administration served far more as a third-party enforcement mechanism of property right’s than had been previously believed. Local officials resolved property disputes over water, land tenure, and contracts even in the absence of a formal civil code (Rowe, 2009, p. 58). While there were craft guilds (hang) in China, there is no evidence that they played a serious role at excluding others from their trade, as they often did in Europe, thus leading to local cartels generating rents for the incumbents before the late nineteenth century (Pomeranz, 2013, pp. 106–8).

The Human Swarm: How Our Societies Arise, Thrive, and Fall
by Mark W. Moffett
Published 31 Mar 2019

.); Mech & Boitani (2003); Smith et al. (2015). 7 Quoted in McKie (2010). 8 Wrangham et al. (2006). 9 Wendorf (1968). 10 Morgan & Buckley (1852), 42–44. 11 Europeans perverted this spiritual component of trophy taking by paying for scalps (Chacon & Dye 2007). 12 Boehm (2013). 13 e.g., Allen & Jones (2014); Gat (2015); Keeley (1997); LeBlanc & Register (2004); Otterbein (2004); DL Smith (2009). 14 Moffett (2011). 15 Gat (1999); Wrangham & Glowacki (2012). 16 This cycle is often driven by spur-of-the-moment gut responses, although some societies, Bedouin tribes for example, codify it (Cole 1975). 17 Genetic analysis indicates Aborigines have stuck to the general regions they first occupied upon settling Australia despite environmental changes since that time (Tobler et al. 2017), although that obviously doesn’t mean the individual societies didn’t move around within an area. Still, many accounts suggest that land tenure by band societies was ancient and respected (LeBlanc 2014). 18 Burch (2005), 59. 19 de Sade (1990), 332. 20 Guibernau (2007); van der Dennen (1999). 21 Bender (2006), 171. 22 Sumner (1906), 12. 23 Johnson (1997). 24 Bar-Tal (2000), 123. 25 This bias is reflected even in the behavior of small groups of children (Dunham et al. 2011). 26 For general descriptions of our ineptitude with risk, see Gigerenzer (2010); Slovic (2000). 27 Fabio Sani, pers. comm.; Hogg & Abrams (1988). 28 e.g., “War is conditioned by human symbol systems,” Huxley (1959), 59. 29 e.g., Wittemyer et al. (2007). 30 At least in captivity (Tan & Hare 2013). 31 Furuichi (2011). 32 Wrangham (2014 & 2019). 33 Hrdy (2009), 3. 34 Hare et al. (2012); Hohmann & Fruth (2011). 35 The closest thing to friendship between units can be detected after one unit splits in two.

Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society
by Nicholas A. Christakis
Published 26 Mar 2019

Similar natural experiments have taken advantage of people winning monetary lotteries to evaluate the link between wealth and health, trying to sort out whether wealthy people become healthy, or healthy people become wealthy (it’s both). J. Gardner and A. J. Oswald, “Money and Mental Wellbeing: A Longitudinal Study of Medium-Sized Lottery Wins,” Journal of Health Economics 26 (2007): 49–60. 12. A. Banerjee and L. Iyer, “Colonial Land Tenure, Electoral Competition, and Public Goods in India,” in J. Diamond and J. A. Robinson, eds., Natural Experiments of History (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2010), pp. 185–220. 13. D. Acemoglu, D. Cantoni, S. Johnson, and J. A. Robinson, “From Ancien Régime to Capitalism: The Spread of the French Revolution as a Natural Experiment,” in J.

1491
by Charles C. Mann
Published 8 Aug 2005

Holmberg had persuaded Cornell to let him lease an old colonial estate in rural Peru (the Carnegie Corporation, a charitable foundation despite its name, provided the funds). The estate included an entire village, whose inhabitants, most of them Indian, were its sharecroppers. “It was really a form of serfdom,” Dobyns told me. “The villagers were just heartbreakingly poor.” Holmberg planned to test strategies for raising their incomes. Because land tenure was a contentious issue in Peru, he had asked Dobyns to finalize the lease and learn more about the estate’s history. With his adjutants, Dobyns visited a dozen archives, including those in the cathedral. Dobyns had been dipping his toe into archival research for more than a decade, with results he found intriguing.

Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity
by Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson
Published 15 May 2023

Totally expropriating the customary rights of poor peasants was a choice. We now know that it was not one that was dictated by the inexorable path of progress. Common lands and open fields could have existed for longer while British agriculture was being modernized. In fact, the available evidence suggests that these forms of land tenure were not inconsistent with new technologies and yield increases. In the seventeenth century, open-field farmers had been at the forefront of those adopting peas and beans, and in the eighteenth century they kept up with the adoption of clover and turnips. There was more drainage installed on enclosed soil, but even in areas where that made a difference, output per hectare was higher only by about 5 percent in 1800.

Frommer's Egypt
by Matthew Carrington
Published 8 Sep 2008

Qasr Ethnographic Museum This museum is located in an old mud-brick building on the edge of the ruins of the old town of Qasr, and the exhibits ramble through a series of rooms to the back of the building. Some of them are a bit cheesy, such as the mocked-up traditional oven, but there’s quite a lot here that can give you insight to life in the oasis. My particular favorites are the land-tenure deeds. You don’t have to be able to follow the complex swirl of the handwritten Arabic script to see how sophisticated the system of land usage is in the oasis, and, taken together with the toothed sluice board exhibit in the Ethnographic Museum in Mut, they begin to give 13_259290-ch10.qxp 282 7/22/08 12:40 AM Page 282 CHAPTER 10 .

The Chomsky Reader
by Noam Chomsky
Published 11 Sep 1987

Daniel Southerland, “New Allegations Against Rightists in El Salvador,” Christian Science Monitor, March 4, 1981. 42. Kinzer, op.cit. 43. Latin America Weekly Report, February 13, 1981. 44. Leonel Gómez and Bruce Cameron, “El Salvador: The Current Danger: American Myths,” Foreign Policy, Summer 1981. 45. Simon and Stephens, op.cit. (see note 1). See also Mac Chapin, “A Few Comments on Land Tenure and the Course of Agrarian Reform in El Salvador,” June 1980 (Chapin is an AID official). On the role of the U.S. labor movement’s AIFLD, see Carolyn Forché and Philip Wheaton, History and Motivations of U.S. Involvement in the Control of the Peasant Movement in El Salvador (Ecumenical Program for Interamerican Communication and Action [EPICA], n.d.). 46.

Energy and Civilization: A History
by Vaclav Smil
Published 11 May 2017

Such sweeping generalizations ignore the influence of many other critical factors. Environmental conditions—soil quality, the amount and reliability of precipitation, the per capita availability of land, fertilizer, and food, the capability to support draft animals—have always made much difference. So did socioeconomic peculiarities (land tenure, corvée, taxation, tenancy, ownership of animals, and access to capital) and technical innovation (better agronomic methods, animal breeds, plows, and cultivation and harvesting implements). Komlos (1988) considered some of these factors in his persuasive refutation of Clark’s exaggerations. Undoubtedly, many cultures did put a low social value on the physical labor of cultivation, and there were important differences in work rates among traditional agricultures.

Cuba: An American History
by Ada Ferrer
Published 6 Sep 2021

In addition to paying surveyors and attorneys, potential buyers often paid off the local officials whose job it was to determine the legitimacy of older claims on communal land. As one manager on a large estate later conceded, the legal proceedings that broke up communal estates were “notoriously crooked—without exception.”19 Order 62 thus destroyed the island’s old land tenure system and created in its place a booming market in Cuban land. It accomplished by other means what the US federal government had been doing for more than a century in North America, as it used land surveys, legislation, and outright violence to create new realms of speculation on former Native, Spanish, and Mexican lands.

Winds of Change
by Peter Hennessy
Published 27 Aug 2019

The Devonshire men felt themselves a cut above this nonsense, believing that our job in our posted territory was to educate its people to their own eventual self-government.49 The LSE lefties, for their part, dubbed the Devonshire men the ‘White Masters’.50 The Devonshire courses were originally eighteen months in duration. By the start of the 1960s it was down to a year, but the content was much the same: Colonial Government, Religion and Administration, Criminal Law, the Law of Evidence and Tort, Land Utilization, Problems of the British Empire, Land Tenure and Native Law, Imperial Economic History, Geography, Social Anthropology and Field Engineering51 (this last course seems to have stuck in the minds of several Oxford Devonshires as its teacher, Mr Longland, used the University Parks to simulate the bush52). My friend Michael Shaw still remembers how to lay cement in the hot tropics to avoid it cracking in the sun thanks to his Cambridge Devonshire 1958–9, and the lady with the long cigarette holder who came up from the School of Oriental and African Studies in London to teach him Swahili in the ‘slightly decrepit rooms’ in Petty Cury in Cambridge.

The Years of Rice and Salt
by Kim Stanley Robinson
Published 2 Jun 2003

It helps to have a plan! as Zhu had often remarked. And so Bao criss crossed the world, meeting and talking to people, helping to put certain strands into place, thickening the warp and weft of treaties and agreements by which all the peoples on the planet were tied together. He worked variously on land tenure reform, forest management, animal protection, water resources, panchayat support and divestiture of accumulated wealth, chipping away at the obdurate blocks of privilege left in the wake of the Long War and all that had happened in the centuries before it. Everything went very slowly, and progress was always in small increments, but what Bao noticed from time to time was that improvements in one part of the world situation often helped elsewhere, so that, for instance, the institution of panchayat governments at the local level in China and the Islamic states led to increased power for more and more people, especially where they adopted the Travancori law of requiring at least two of every five panchayat members to be women; and this in turn mitigated many land problems.

Blue Mars
by Kim Stanley Robinson
Published 23 Oct 2010

So once again the system had worked; they had warm bodies filling the whole polyarchic array, the neighborhood boards, the ag board, the water board, the architectural review board, the project review council, the economic coordination group, the crater council to coordinate all these smaller bodies, the global delegates’ advisory board— all that network of small management bodies that progressive political theorists had been suggesting in one variation or another for centuries, incorporating aspects of the almost-forgotten guild socialism of Great Britain, Yugoslavian worker management, Mondragon ownership, Kerala land tenure, and so on. An experiment in synthesis. And so far it seemed to be working, in the sense that the Da Vinci techs seemed about as self-determined and happy as they had been during the ad hoc underground years, when everything had been done (apparently) by instinct, or, to be more precise, by the general consensus of the (much smaller) population in Da Vinci at that time.

Vanished Kingdoms: The Rise and Fall of States and Nations
by Norman Davies
Published 30 Sep 2009

Numerous Romans entered their service, notably the military general Nepotanius, the admiral Namatius of Saintes, and Victorius, the dux super septem civitates, or ‘commander of Septimania’.10 The Visigoths did not legislate separately for the Gallo-Romans, suggesting a willingness to assimilate; a new system of land tenure did not involve significant confiscations; and in religious matters, the Arian practices of the Visigothic clergy proceeded in parallel to the well-established network of Roman bishoprics and rural churches. The fact that the General Church Council of Agde could take place in Visigothic territory in 506 suggests that the non-Arians had no special fear for their safety.11 The Roman city of Tolosa, built on the plain beneath an ancient Celtic hill fort, had been given the epithet Palladia by the Emperor Domitian in honour of the goddess Pallas Athena, patroness of the arts.

The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970
by John Darwin
Published 23 Sep 2009

The British for their part seemed less sure than they had been before 1914 about what their Raj was to do. The social problems of India had always seemed daunting, but now they were more conscious than ever that they had only makeshift solutions. The Royal Commission on Indian Agriculture (1928) was set up to inquire into the causes of low productivity. But it pointedly ignored the key issue of land tenure so as not to enrage the Raj's key allies among the landholding classes. As the Congress pushed deeper into rural society, the old British claim that they were the guardians of peasants and cultivators looked more and more threadbare. Indeed, the reforms of 1918–19 were meant to shift the burden of social questions towards the ‘transferred’ departments in provincial governments under the charge of elected Indian ministers.

Vanished Kingdoms: The History of Half-Forgotten Europe
by Norman Davies
Published 27 Sep 2011

Numerous Romans entered their service, notably the military general Nepotanius, the admiral Namatius of Saintes, and Victorius, the dux super septem civitates, or ‘commander of Septimania’.10 The Visigoths did not legislate separately for the Gallo-Romans, suggesting a willingness to assimilate; a new system of land tenure did not involve significant confiscations; and in religious matters, the Arian practices of the Visigothic clergy proceeded in parallel to the well-established network of Roman bishoprics and rural churches. The fact that the General Church Council of Agde could take place in Visigothic territory in 506 suggests that the non-Arians had no special fear for their safety.11 The Roman city of Tolosa, built on the plain beneath an ancient Celtic hill fort, had been given the epithet Palladia by the Emperor Domitian in honour of the goddess Pallas Athena, patroness of the arts.

Thomas Cromwell: A Life
by Diarmaid MacCulloch
Published 26 Sep 2018

His contemporary Lord Herbert of Chirbury considered that that same royal instinct was on display in 1540, and that the unpopularity of the taxation was yet another consideration to throw on the scales when Henry allowed Cromwell to be destroyed.47 Besides the tax grant was a huge volume of legislation both public and private: so much that Geoffrey Elton commented it was almost as though Cromwell knew this would be his last Parliament.48 It certainly demonstrated the minister’s frantic energy in trying to cope with the continuing pile of legislative needs built up over three years: the volume of demands itself witnessing how both King and people now saw Parliament as the forum for securing change. Among government bills, the most important concerned land tenure, principally a new right for the King’s subjects to use their wills to make decisions on leaving land to whom they pleased. This was a necessary royal retreat from the great kingdom-wide groundswell of fury against the Statute of Uses of 1536, which, as we observed, swept aside a century and more of legal evasions of feudal inheritance law.

The Pursuit of Power: Europe, 1815-1914
by Richard J. Evans
Published 31 Aug 2016

Nearly a sixth of the entire population of Greece emigrated between 1890 and 1914, either to America or to Egypt. European states with overseas empires, from Britain and France to Portugal and the Netherlands, also witnessed extensive waves of emigration. The major exception was France, where the low birth rate and the security of land tenure kept people in the home country. Altogether some 60 million people are thought to have left Europe between 1815 and 1914: 34 million for the USA, 4 million for Canada, and maybe a million for Australia and New Zealand. Between 1857 and 1940, 7 million Europeans left for Argentina, and between 1821 and 1945, 5 million for Brazil.

Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism
by Peter Marshall
Published 2 Jan 1992

The oldest debate in Chinese political thought was between the Taoists, who advocated a simple life in harmony with nature, and the Legalists and Confucians, who stressed the need for a strong centralized State and bureaucracy.1 Modern anarchism not only advocated the Taoist rural idyll, but also echoed the peasant longing embedded in Chinese culture for a frugal and egalitarian millennium which has expressed itself in peasant rebellions throughout Chinese history. It further struck a chord with two traditional concepts, Ta-t’ung, a legendary golden age of social equality and harmony, and Ching-t’ien, a system of communal land tenure which was probably practised locally at different periods during the first millennium.2 At the turn of the century, China was almost completely dependent on Japan for its knowledge of the West. It is not therefore surprising mat the formative stage of Chinese radicalism was closely linked to Japan’s.