meta-analysis

Human Diversity: The Biology of Gender, Race, and Class

by Charles Murray  · 28 Jan 2020  · 741pp  · 199,502 words

. The same thing happens within different kinds of STEM occupations: In 2015, two of the same authors, Rong Su and James Rounds, conducted another meta-analysis focusing on distinctions within scientific and technical occupations. Again, their database of vocational preferences and a database of actual jobs held by the U.S

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: Women have a pronounced neurological tendency to respond to negative stimuli; men have a pronounced neurological tendency to respond to positive stimuli. The Stevens meta-analysis is useful for establishing the reality of an overall relationship—in this case between regional sex differences in the brain and emotional response—but the

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But the most extensive technical literature involves the Big Five personality factors—emotional stability, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness—so much that a 2014 meta-analysis of the relationship of personality to academic performance by psychologist Arthur Poropat had two dozen samples to work with. Conscientiousness consistently played the most important

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Psychological Bulletin by a team of psychologists at the University of Minnesota (first author was Paul Sackett). The authors presented results for a meta-analysis of College Board data, a meta-analysis of other studies using a composite measure of parental SES, and a reanalysis of major longitudinal datasets. A table summarizing the results

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controlling for the admissions test score, the correlation of parental SES and college grades dropped from +.22 to –.01 in the SAT meta-analysis, from .09 to .00 in the meta-analysis of studies with composite SES measures, and from a mean of .06 to .01 among the longitudinal studies. After controlling for the

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measure of SES, the correlation between admission test score and grades was reduced only fractionally: from +.53 to +.50 in the SAT meta-analysis, from +.37 to +.36 in the meta-analysis of studies with composite SES measures, and from a mean of +.313 to +.308 among the longitudinal studies. For practical purposes, parental

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environment can be affected by outside interventions.” “But you’re ignoring epigenetics!” “The First Premise Is Wrong for Some Important Outcomes” In the Polderman meta-analysis discussed in chapter 11, there were exceptions to the generalization that the role of the shared environment is trivially small. The shared environment explained 36

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The authors conducted extensive tests for the robustness of this finding, all of which it passed. Their main conclusion is worth quoting in full: This meta-analysis of published and unpublished data provided clear answers to our three questions. First, studies from the United States supported a moderately sized Gene × SES

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settings with conditions most similar to operational testing is small and inflated by publication bias.39 Given this assessment from the largest and most rigorous meta-analysis of a quarter century of attempts to demonstrate stereotype threat, it seems unlikely that a significant role for stereotype threat exists. The Growth Mindset

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mindset and academic achievement? Is there evidence that growth mindset interventions produce improvements in academic achievement? The relationship of growth mindset to academic achievement. This meta-analysis analyzed the results of 273 studies with a combined sample of 365,915. The mean correlation between growth mindset and academic achievement was .10.

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the literature had grown so large that an international team of neuroscientists drawn primarily from Cambridge University (first author was Amber Ruigrok) could publish “A Meta-analysis of Sex Differences in Human Brain Structure” that combined 77 different studies involving 14,597 individuals. The table below shows the results for the basic

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volume measures. META-ANALYSIS OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE MAJOR VOLUMES Volume: Intracranial volume Studies: 77 Sample size: 14,957 Mean difference (ml): 135.3 Percentage difference: 12

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of articles that Maccoby and Jacklin had underestimated the role of differential socialization (e.g., Block (1978), Block (1983)). Lytton and Romney (1991), a subsequent meta-analysis of 172 studies of gender socialization, examined socialization regarding eight topics: amount of interaction, achievement encouragement, warmth, nurturance, responsiveness (including praise), encouragement of dependency,

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restrictiveness/low encouragement of independence, disciplinary strictness, encouragement of sex-typed activities, sex-typed perception, and clarity of communication/use of reasoning. The meta-analysis found few differences on any of them. “The effect sizes for most socialization areas are nonsignificant and generally very small, fluctuating in direction across studies

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0.43 (boys got more encouragement) and the effect size for physical punishment was –0.37 (boys got more physical punishment). Seven years later, another meta-analysis, Leaper, Anderson, and Sanders (1998), focused specifically on studies that observed the language that parents use with their children. There were sex differences in the

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, van Aken et al. (2006); Rothbaum and Weisz (1994); Kawabata, Alink, Tseng et al. (2011). In 2016, the Dutch scholars cited earlier published a meta-analysis of the literature on gender-differentiating parenting regarding control strategies. Their conclusion was generically similar to those of the other meta-analyses: The evidence showed

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56 studies limited to those that report direct contrasts between men and women participating in the same visual emotion-eliciting task within each study. The meta-analysis focused on which regions were activated, with broad characterizations of the results rather than specific hypotheses about how they related to phenotypic differences. Here

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in females in early puberty before peaking and decreasing, while males show increasing amygdala volumes throughout puberty. Marwha, Halari, and Eliot (2017), a recent meta-analysis that found no significant difference in amygdala size after correcting for total brain volume, disputes this, reporting that “our findings do not support a marked

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a 10% downward bias in the reported estimates of h2 in comparison to those based on twin correlations, consistent with the observed discrepancy between our meta-analysis of variance component estimates calculated from twin correlations and the reported variance components.” Polderman, Benyamin, de Leeuw et al. (2015): 705. 15. Plomin (2011):

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The results are limited to meta-analyses incorporating corrections for restriction of range and criterion unreliability using conservative criterion reliability estimates. When more than one meta-analysis reported operational validities for a given category, I report the mean of those results. The chapter also includes analyses comparing the operational validities of different

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various positions would take us deep into the psychometric weeds. For me, a single source that is both rigorous and judicious is a 2010 integrative meta-analysis by psychologists Dana Joseph and Daniel Newman. They conclude the article with “Practical Advice for Using Emotional Intelligence Measures in Personnel Selection” that seems

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. 36. The table below is adapted from Sackett, Kuncel, Arneson et al. (2009): Table 4. The figures for the SAT meta-analysis are corrected for national population range restriction. Sample: Meta-analysis of College Board data Correlation N: SES–test: +.42 SES–grade: +.22 Test–grade: +.53 Partial correlation Test–grade controlling for

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stereotyped students performed better than nonstereotyped students) for tests under “safe conditions that reduce threat.” (p. 1137). The study also reported results from a meta-analysis of 39 samples that included several studies of race-based stereotype threat but did not break out separate effect sizes for the race-based studies

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. (2015), restricting them to ones with samples of healthy adults and correcting for restriction of range. They reached an estimated correlation of +.31. The 2017 meta-analysis also classified studies according to their quality of measurement—“fair,” “good,” and “excellent.” The estimated correlations for these subsets were +.23, +.32, and +.39

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Biology and Medicine.” Lancet 392 (10149): 777–86. Doyle, Randi A., and Daniel Voyer. 2016. “Stereotype Manipulation Effects on Math and Spatial Test Performance: A Meta-Analysis.” Learning and Individual Differences 47: 103–16. Duckworth, Angela Lee, and Stephanie M. Carlson. 2013. “Self-Regulation and School Success.” In Self-Regulation and

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New York: Springer Science + Business Media. Flore, Paulette C., and Jelte M. Wicherts. 2015. “Does Stereotype Threat Influence Performance of Girls in Stereotyped Domains? A Meta-analysis.” Journal of School Psychology 53 (1): 25–44. Foley, Sallie, and George W. Morley. 1992. “Care and Counseling of the Patient with Vaginal Agenesis.” The

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Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts About Alternative Medicine

by Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh  · 17 Aug 2008  · 357pp  · 110,072 words

of research into homeopathy in order to develop an over-arching conclusion that took into consideration each and every trial. This is known as a meta-analysis, which means an analysis of various analyses. In other words, each individual trial into homeopathy concluded with an analysis of its own data, and Linde

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was proposing to pool all these separate analyses in order to generate a new, more reliable, overall result. Meta-analysis can be considered as a particular type of systematic review, a concept that was introduced in the previous chapter. Like a systematic review, a

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meta-analysis attempts to draw an overall conclusion from several separate trials, except that a meta-analysis tends to involve a more mathematical approach. Although the term meta-analysis might be unfamiliar to many readers, it is a concept that crops up in

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single poll, because the meta-poll (i.e. poll of polls) reflects the complete data from a much larger group of voters. The power of meta-analysis becomes obvious if we examine some hypothetical sets of data concerning astrology. If your astrological sign determined your character, then an astrologer should be able

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one way to interpret these sets of data would be to conclude that, in general, the experiments support astrology. However, a meta-analysis would come to a different conclusion. The meta-analysis would start by pointing out that the number of attempts made by the astrologer in any one of the experiments was relatively

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could be explained by mere chance. In other words, the result of any one of these experiments is effectively meaningless. Next, the researcher doing the meta-analysis would combine all the data from the individual experiments as though they were part of one giant experiment. This tells us that the astrologer had

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.98 out of 12, which is very close to 1 out of 12, the hit rate expected by chance alone. The conclusion of this hypothetical meta-analysis would be that the astrologer has demonstrated no special ability to determine a person’s star sign based on their personality. This conclusion is far

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more reliable than anything that could have been deduced solely from any one of the small-scale experiments. In scientific terms: a meta-analysis is said to minimize random and selection biases. Turning to medical research, there are numerous treatments that have been tested by

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meta-analysis. For example, in the 1980s researchers wanted to know if corticosteroid medication could help reduce respiratory problems in premature babies. They designed a trial which

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each individual trial varied from hospital to hospital, because the numbers of babies in each trial was small and random influences were large. Yet a meta-analysis of all the trials showed with certainty that corticosteroid medication during pregnancy benefited premature babies. This treatment is part of the reason why the number

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syndrome has fallen dramatically – there were 25,000 such deaths in America in the early 1950s and today the number is fewer than 500. The meta-analysis in the premature baby study was fairly straightforward, because the individual trials were similar to each other and so they could be merged easily. The

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same is true of the hypothetical example concerning astrology. Unfortunately, conducting a meta-analysis is often a messy business, because the individual trials have generally been conducted in different ways. Trials for the same medication might vary according to

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the dose given, the period of monitoring, and so on. In Linde’s case, the meta-analysis was particularly problematic. In order to draw a conclusion about the efficacy of homeopathy, Linde was attempting to include homeopathy trials investigating a huge variety

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homeopathic conferences, contacted researchers in the field and eventually found 186 published trials on homeopathy. He and his colleagues then decided to exclude from his meta-analysis those trials that failed to meet certain basic conditions. For example, in addition to a group of patients being treated with homeopathy and a control

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weight in the overall conclusion, because the reliability of a trial’s result is closely linked to the number of participants in the trial. The meta-analysis was eventually published in September 1997 in the Lancet. It was one of the most controversial medical research papers of the year, because its conclusion

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were much more likely to show signs of improvement than those patients in the control groups receiving placebo. The paper concluded: ‘The results of our meta-analysis are not compatible with the hypothesis that the clinical effects of homeopathy are completely due to placebo.’ In other words, according to the

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meta-analysis, homeopathy was genuinely effective. Not surprisingly, Linde’s conclusion was questioned by opponents of homeopathy. Critics argued that his meta-analysis had been too lax, inasmuch as it had included too many trials of relatively poor quality

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is a good indication of their overall level of rigour. Critics pointed out that sixty-eight out of the eighty-nine trials in Linde’s meta-analysis scored only 3 or less on the Oxford scale, which meant that three-quarters of the trials were substandard. Moreover, critics pointed out that restricting

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the meta-analysis to the higher-quality trials (4 or 5 points) drastically reduced the apparent efficacy of homeopathy. In fact, the conclusion of the twenty-one higher

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was clear evidence that studies with better methodological quality tended to yield less positive results.’ Then, referring back to the original meta-analysis, he stressed: ‘It seems, therefore, likely that our meta-analysis at least over-estimated the effects of homeopathic treatments.’ Linde’s original 1997 paper had supported homeopathy, yet his revised 1999

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paper was much more equivocal. His re-analysis of his own meta-analysis obviously disappointed the alternative medicine community, yet it was also frustrating for the medical establishment. Everyone was dissatisfied because Linde was neither able to claim

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scrutiny from the late 1990s onwards. This eventually prompted Dr Aijing Shang and his colleagues at the University of Berne, Switzerland, to undertake a fresh meta-analysis of all the trials published up to January 2003. The medical research group at Berne, which is led by Professor Mathias Eggers, has a world

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-wide reputation for excellence and the Swiss government had provided the team with adequate funding for a fully rigorous meta-analysis. Hopes were high that Shang would at last be able to deliver a reliable conclusion. Indeed, after two centuries of bitter dispute between homeopaths and

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mainstream medics, Shang’s meta-analysis was destined to decide, at last, who was right and who was wrong. Shang was ruthless in his demand for quality, which meant that his

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meta-analysis included only those trials with large numbers of participants, decent blinding and proper randomization. In the end, he was left with only eight homeopathy trials.

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After studying the data from these eight trials – the best available trials on homeopathy – his meta-analysis reached its momentous conclusion. On average, homeopathy was only very marginally more effective than placebo. So, did this tiny marginal average benefit suggest that homeopathy

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his conclusion was wholly compatible with the judgement that homeopathy acted as nothing more than a placebo. In fact, the most sensible interpretation of the meta-analysis was that homeopathy was indeed nothing more than a placebo. This interpretation becomes more convincing if we bear in mind another aspect of his research

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. While conducting his meta-analysis on homeopathy, he also conducted a meta-analysis for a whole variety of new, conventional pharmaceuticals. These pharmaceuticals had been tested on the same illnesses that had been considered for

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the homeopathy meta-analysis. In this secondary meta-analysis, Shang scrupulously applied exactly the same selection criteria to these conventional drug trials as he had done in his homeopathy meta-analysis. The

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result of his meta-analysis on conventional drug trials was that on average they worked. Although

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body. This illustrates the stark difference between pseudo-medicine and real medicine. Shang published his results in the Lancet in August 2005. Based on his meta-analysis, he concluded: ‘This finding is compatible with the notion that the clinical effects of homeopathy are placebo effects.’ Reinforcing this point, the Lancet ran an

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about homeopathy’s lack of benefit’. This sparked major news stories around the world, angering homeopaths who refused to accept the conclusions of Shang’s meta-analysis and the Lancet’s accompanying statement. They attempted to undermine the research by pointing out four key issues, but in fact each of their criticisms

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can be easily addressed. Homeopaths might argue that Shang’s paper indicates a positive effect for homeopathy, and that his meta-analysis therefore supports homeopathy. There is indeed a positive effect for homeopathy, but it is very small and entirely compatible with the treatment being a placebo

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offers any benefit beyond placebo. Homeopaths claim that Shang dredged the data, which means that the meta-analysis was conducted in such a way as to bias the conclusion. There are indeed many ways to conduct a meta-analysis. Therefore it is possible to ‘dredge the data’ in different ways until the most positive

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or negative result emerges, but importantly Shang had stated what his approach would be before embarking on the meta-analysis, and his approach seemed reasonable and unbiased. In other words, the research was impartial because the goalposts were decided before the data was examined, and

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the goalposts were of a fair size and were not moved once the research was under way. Homeopaths point out that the meta-analysis included trials for several illnesses, which makes it too crude to say anything meaningful about homeopathy’s ability to treat individual conditions. This over-arching

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meta-analysis was prompted by the fact that there has been no convincing evidence that homeopathy can treat any individual condition. Whenever researchers have conducted systematic reviews

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and over again there were tantalizing indications that St John’s wort was more than a mere placebo. The next step was to perform a meta-analysis, whereby all the data from all the trials would be carefully brought together in order to get a firmer grasp of the true value of

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the plant. The first meta-analysis of St John’s wort was conducted in 1996 and included the results from twenty-three studies. Referring to St John’s wort by its

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of publicity, sales of St John’s wort in America increased by a factor of 30 in just three years. The conclusion of the 1996 meta-analysis was reinforced in 2005 by the Cochrane Collaboration. It conducted a systematic review entitled St John’s wort for depression, which covered all the thirty

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constant field strength rather than fluctuating strength – magnets relates to pain control. Researchers at Exeter University recently included nine placebo-controlled, randomized trials in a meta-analysis. The results do not support the use of static magnets for pain relief. For other problems, such as menstrual symptoms or varicose veins, the evidence

Bad Pharma: How Medicine Is Broken, and How We Can Fix It

by Ben Goldacre  · 1 Jan 2012  · 402pp  · 129,876 words

out that evidence, we need to understand exactly why it matters, from a scientific perspective. And for that we need to understand systematic reviews and ‘meta-analysis’. Between them, these are two of the most powerful ideas in modern medicine. They are incredibly simple, but they were invented shockingly late. When we

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and transgressive ideas of the past forty years. When you’ve got all the trial data in one place, you can conduct something called a meta-analysis, where you bring all the results together in one giant spreadsheet, pool all the data and get one single, summary figure, the most accurate summary

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diamond. And you can see very clearly that overall, streptokinase saves lives. So what’s that on the right? It’s something called a cumulative meta-analysis. If you look at the list of studies on the left of the diagram, you can see that they are arranged in order of date

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. The cumulative meta-analysis on the right adds in each new trial’s results, as they arrived over history, to the previous trials’ results. This gives the best possible

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running estimate, each year, of how the evidence would have looked at that time, if anyone had bothered to do a meta-analysis on all the data available to them. From this cumulative blobbogram you can see that the horizontal lines, the ‘summary effects’, narrow over time as

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all the trials, he explained, but your positive conclusion is really driven by data from just one of the papers you cite, an industry-funded meta-analysis led by an author called Kaiser. This, ‘the Kaiser paper’, summarises the findings of ten earlier trials, but from these ten trials, only two have

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, and never received a reply. Then, in October 2009, the company changed tack: they would like to hand the data over, they explained, but another meta-analysis was being conducted elsewhere. Roche had given them the study reports, so Cochrane couldn’t have them. This was a simple non-sequitur: there is

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seven short documents, each around a dozen pages long. These contained excerpts of internal company documents on each of the clinical trials in the Kaiser meta-analysis. This was a start, but it didn’t contain anything like enough information for Cochrane to assess the benefits, or the rate of adverse events

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to the drug, but doctors and patients only learned about this serious problem in 2007, when cardiologist Professor Steve Nissen and colleagues published a landmark meta-analysis. This showed a 43 per cent increase in the risk of heart problems in patients on rosiglitazone. Since people with diabetes are already at increased

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particularly useful, or particularly useless, in particular types of patients. The biggest immediate benefit from data sharing is that combining individual patient data into a meta-analysis gives more accurate results than working with the crude summary results at the end of a paper. Let’s imagine that one paper reports survival

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the main outcome for a cancer drug, and another reports survival at seven years. To combine these two in a meta-analysis, you’d have a problem. But if you were doing the meta-analysis with access to individual patient data, with treatment details and death dates for all of them, you could do

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, for example, is the author list on an academic paper from the Lancet in November 2011: it’s reporting an immense, definitive, and incredibly useful meta-analysis of breast cancer treatment outcomes, using individual patient data pooled from seventeen different trials. The author list is printed in four-point font size (though

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twenty-four similar studies.47 Overall, it found that only 67 per cent of the claims in adverts are supported by a systematic review, a meta-analysis or a randomised-control trial. Despite this overwhelming evidence, the British Department of Health has rejected calls for drug companies to be forced to publish

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of heart attack.112 More specifically, they identified all 202 pieces citing and commenting on either of the two key publications examining this question: a meta-analysis by Steve Nissen, which showed that rosiglitazone does increase heart attacks; and the RECORD trial, which suggested that the drug was fine (although, you may

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. 6 Eyding D, Lelgemann M, Grouven U, Harter M, Kromp M, Kaiser T, et al. Reboxetine for acute treatment of major depression: systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished placebo and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor controlled trials. BMJ. 2010 Oct 12;341:c4737–c4737. 7 Suntharalingam G, Perry MR, Ward

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. 76 Tom Jefferson, Lecture on Tamiflu, BMJ Evidence 2011, London. 77 Tramèr MR, Reynolds DJ, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Impact of covert duplicate publication on meta-analysis: a case study. BMJ. 1997 Sep 13;315(7109):635–40. 78 Doshi P, Jefferson T, Del Mar C (2012) The Imperative to Share Clinical

Bad Science

by Ben Goldacre  · 1 Jan 2008  · 322pp  · 107,576 words

doesn’t matter, because overall, even including these suspicious studies, the ‘meta-analyses’ still show, overall, that homeopathy is no better than placebo. Meta-analyses? Meta-analysis This will be our last big idea for a while, and this is one that has saved the lives of more people than you will

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ever meet. A meta-analysis is a very simple thing to do, in some respects: you just collect all the results from all the trials on a given subject, bung

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trials looking at whether asthma symptoms get better with homeopathy, each of which has a paltry forty patients, you could put them all into one meta-analysis and effectively (in some respects) have a four-hundred-person trial to work with. In some very famous cases—at least, famous in the world

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literature on healthcare research, including meta-analyses. The logo of the Cochrane Collaboration features a simplified ‘blobbogram’, a graph of the results from a landmark meta-analysis which looked at an intervention given to pregnant mothers. When people give birth prematurely, as you might expect, the babies are more likely to suffer

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, but the remaining five failed to detect any benefit, and because of this, the idea didn’t catch on. Eight years later, in 1989, a meta-analysis was done by pooling all this trial data. If you look at the blobbogram in the logo on the previous page, you can see what

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know what would save them, because that information had not been synthesised together, and analysed systematically, in a meta-analysis. Back to homeopathy (you can see why I find it trivial now). A landmark meta-analysis was published recently in the Lancet. It was accompanied by an editorial titled: ‘The End of Homeopathy?’ Shang

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et al. did a very thorough meta-analysis of a vast number of homeopathy trials, and they found, overall, adding them all up, that homeopathy performs no better than placebo. The homeopaths were

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up in arms. If you mention this meta-analysis, they will try to tell you that it was a stitch-up. What Shang et al. did, essentially, like all the previous negative meta-analyses

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claim that these same meta-analyses support the use of homeopathy. They do this by quoting only the result for all trials included in each meta-analysis. This figure includes all of the poorer-quality trials. The most reliable figure, you now know, is for the restricted pool of the most ‘fair

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the placebo effect on modern illnesses? Firstly, and rather ingeniously, we can compare one placebo with another. The first experiment in this field was a meta-analysis by Daniel Moerman, an anthropologist who has specialised in the placebo effect. He took the trial data from placebo-controlled trials of gastric ulcer medication

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, and indeed an increase in risk of lung cancer in participants taking ß-carotene and retinol together. The most up-to-date systematic review and meta-analysis on the use of antioxidants to reduce heart attacks and stroke looked at vitamin E, and separately 0-carotene, in fifteen trials, and found no

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, Horrobin’s products were always in the news, but it was difficult to get hold of the research data. In 1989 he published a famous meta-analysis of trials in a dermatology journal which found that his lead product, evening primrose oil, was effective in eczema. This

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meta-analysis excluded the one available large published trial (which was negative), but included the two oldest studies, and seven small positive studies sponsored by his own

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academics had their review of the data binned by the journal after Horrobin’s lawyers got involved. In 1995 the Department of Health commissioned a meta-analysis from a renowned epidemiologist. This included ten unpublished studies held by the company which was marketing evening primrose oil. The ensuing scene was only fully

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trial which contradicts the entire body of research meticulously summarised by Cochrane, but it doesn’t matter: whatever it is, because it conflicts with the meta-analysis, we can be clear that it is cherry-picked. Holford does give a reference, immediately afterwards, for a study where blood tests showed that seven

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trial which contradicts the entire body of research meticulously summarised by Cochrane, but it doesn’t matter: whatever it is, because it conflicts with the meta-analysis, we can be clear that it is cherry-picked. Holford does give a reference, immediately afterwards, for a study where blood tests showed that seven

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trial which contradicts the entire body of research meticulously summarised by Cochrane, but it doesn’t matter: whatever it is, because it conflicts with the meta-analysis, we can be clear that it is cherry-picked. Holford does give a reference, immediately afterwards, for a study where blood tests showed that seven

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trouble to go back in time and find the most up-to-date review reference, as the literature stood in 2003: a systematic review and meta-analysis, collected and published in the Lancet, which assessed all the papers published on the subject from decades previously, and found overall that there is no

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of them frequently appear in newspaper articles, and traces of their flawed logic emerge in discussions with nutritionists. In one, for example, he attacked a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of antioxidants as being biased, because it excluded two trials he said were positive. In fact they were not trials, they

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were simply observational surveys, and so could never have been included. On the occasion we are interested in, Patrick Holford was angry about a meta-analysis on omega-3 fats (such as fish oils), co-authored by Professor Carolyn Summerbell: she holds the full-time academic chair in Nutrition at Teesside

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patients had a higher risk of heart attack if they were taking the drugs rofecoxib (Vioxx), diclofenac or ibuprofen. At number two was a large meta-analysis of drug company data, which showed no evidence that SSRI antidepressants increase the risk of suicide, but found weak evidence for an increased risk of

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Oxford called Martin Tramer, who was looking at the efficacy of a nausea drug called ondansetron. He noticed that lots of the data in a meta-analysis he was doing seemed to be replicated: the results for many individual patients had been written up several times, in slightly different forms, in apparently

Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy

by Irvin D. Yalom and Molyn Leszcz  · 1 Jan 1967

Practice 2 (1998): 101–117. M. Smith, G. Glass, and T. Miller, The Benefits of Psychotherapy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980). L. Tillitski, “A Meta-Analysis of Estimated Effect Sizes for Group Versus Individual Versus Control Treatments,” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy 40 (1990): 215–24. G. Burlingame, K. MacKenzie, and

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,” Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 2 (1998): 101–17. W. McDermut, I. Miller, and R. Brown, “The Efficacy of Group Psychotherapy for Depression: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Empirical Research,” Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 8 (2001): 98–116. G. Burlingame, K. MacKenzie, and B. Strauss, “Small-Group Treatment: Evidence

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. Kaul, “Experiential Group Research: Can the Canon Fire?” in Garfield and Bergin, Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavioral Change, 4th ed., 631–63. C. Tillitski, “A Meta-Analysis of Estimated Effect Sizes for Group Versus Individual Versus Control Treatments,” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy 40 (1990): 215–24. R. Toseland and M. Siporin

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,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56 (1988): 448–51. 7 A. Horvath and B. Symonds, “Relation Between Working Alliance and Outcome in Psychotherapy: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Consulting Psychology 38 (1991): 139–49. F. Fiedler, “A Comparison of Therapeutic Relationships in Psychoanalytic, Non-directive, and Adlerian Therapy,” Journal of Consulting

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, 1994). 22 I. Yalom, “A Study of Group Therapy Dropouts,” Archives of General Psychiatry 14 (1966): 393–414. 23 M. Wierzbicki and G. Pekarik, “A Meta-Analysis of Psychotherapy Dropouts,” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 24 (1993): 190–95. 24 W. Stone and J. Rutan, “Duration of Treatment in Group Psychotherapy,” International

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Therapy: A Viable Model,” Group 16 (1992): 5–17. 42 W. McDermut, I. Miller, and R. Brown, “The Efficacy of Group Psychotherapy for Depression: A Meta-Analysis and a Review of Empirical Research,” Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 8 (2001): 98–104. 43 MacKenzie and Grabovac, “Interpersonal Psychotherapy Group.” A. Ravindran et

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of Caring Sciences (Special Issue: The Challenging Complexity of Cancer Care Research) 16 (2002): 224–31. S. Barlow, G. Burlingame, R. Nebeker, and E. Anderson, “Meta-Analysis of Medical Self-Help Groups,” International Journal of Group Psychotherapy 50 (2000): 53–69. 84 Riessman and Banks, “A Marriage of Opposites.” Davison et al

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(2004): 177–92. 89 Davison et al., “Who Talks?” 90 Kelly, “Self-Help for Substance-Use Disorders.” 91 J. Tonigan, R. Toscova, and W. Miller, “Meta-Analysis of the Literature on Alcoholics Anonymous: Sample and Study Characteristics Moderate Findings,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 57 (1996): 65–72. 92 M. Lieberman and

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(rather than matching or nonrandom assignment), which clearly specified the independent variables employed, and which measured dependent variables by one or more standardized instruments. t Meta-analysis is a statistical approach that examines a large number of scientific studies by pooling their data together into one large data set to determine findings

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, see my story “Travels with Paula” in Momma and the Meaning of Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1999, 15–53). ak The authors of a large meta-analysis concluded that although problems with addictions respond well to self-help groups, clients with medical problems in such groups do not demonstrate objective benefits commensurate

Science Fictions: How Fraud, Bias, Negligence, and Hype Undermine the Search for Truth

by Stuart Ritchie  · 20 Jul 2020

circulate). Boldt’s faked results made it look as if hydroxyethyl starch was safe for this purpose, a verdict bolstered by the fact that a ‘meta-analysis’ – a review study that pools together all the previous papers on the subject – reached the same conclusion. This was only true, however, because Boldt

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’s fraud hadn’t yet been revealed; the meta-analysis included his fake results as part of its review. When Boldt’s deception became known, and his papers were excluded from the

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of publication bias when we zoom out to look at a whole segment of scientific literature. This zooming-out often takes the form of a meta-analysis, which by combining results from multiple studies can calculate the overall effect (sometimes, perhaps tempting fate, called the ‘true’ effect) on a given topic.

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random fluctuations caused by error should cancel out across different samples – the overall effect size calculated in a meta-analysis is normally considered more reliable than the estimates from individual studies. A meta-analysis doesn’t calculate the overall effect simply by averaging the effect sizes reported by all the included studies. It

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more limited snapshots and are more affected by sampling error, will have more variability, over- and under-estimating the true effect by wider margins. A meta-analysis therefore gives more weight to the effect sizes from big studies, because they’re likely to be more accurate.28 In the context of publication

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one dot per study, you’d expect your graph to look something like Figure 2A below. (Note that this is an idealised version of a meta-analysis; real datasets almost never look this clear-cut.) Looking at this ‘funnel plot’ (so named for what are hopefully obvious reasons), you can see

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funnel shape is just what we’d expect if all the studies had converged upon a real effect. Figure 2. Funnel plots from an imaginary meta-analysis, in two different scenarios. In scenario A, the distribution of the thirty studies is about what you’d expect if every study ever done

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The vertical line in the middle of each graph is the overall effect size calculated by each meta-analysis. In the case of scenario B, it’s been shifted to the right, meaning that the meta-analysis is coming up with a bigger effect than it should. Just as in an archaeological dig,

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a lack of weapons might mean they were civilians rather than soldiers – we can learn a lot from what we don’t see in a meta-analysis. What if our plot looks more like Figure 2B? Here, we’ve lost a chunk from the expected shape. The studies we’d expect

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that fits our pre-existing beliefs and desires), is what’s at the root of publication bias. If you consider the overall conclusions of a meta-analysis based on Figure 2B rather than 2A, you can see how publication bias deranges the scientific literature. If the studies with small effects have

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been removed from the funnel shape, the overall effect that shows up in the meta-analysis will by definition be larger than is justified. We get an exaggerated view of the importance of the effects and can be misled into believing

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or ambiguous studies, researchers force blinkers onto anyone who reads the scientific literature. One of the most striking recent funnel plots was featured in a meta-analysis by the psychologist David Shanks and his colleagues.29 It examined yet another variation on the priming theme: ‘romantic priming’. This is the idea that

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consumption’ to attract partners). Fifteen published papers, documenting forty-three separate experiments, seemed to support this hypothesis. However, when those studies were plotted for the meta-analysis, the funnel had a huge chunk missing: compelling evidence that many of the studies that hadn’t found the effect had been nixed prior to

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have weird shapes for reasons other than publication bias, especially if there are a lot of differences between the assorted studies that go into the meta-analysis.36 There are many cases where publication bias is more subtle, and thus harder to discern, than in those described above. Are there better

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analyses we covered earlier. Even leaving aside the fact that some research is often missing due to publication bias, if the studies included in the meta-analysis are all themselves exaggerated by p-hacking, the overall combined effect – in what’s supposed to be an authoritative overview of all the knowledge on

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powerful forces that affect individuals and shape society. The evidence for the phenomenon is quite weak, and possibly subject to publication bias, for a 2015 meta-analysis reviewing all the relevant stereotype threat studies found a clear gap where the small, null studies on the subject – those that showed girls were equally

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idea that there’s a single ‘quick fix’ for anything as complex as a child’s education.38 To be charitable to Dweck, the meta-analysis came over a decade after the publication of Mindset in 2006. Perhaps it was unclear then how things would turn out for the findings (though

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more unsaturated ones. This is a cornerstone of nutritional advice, repeated in countless dietary guidelines.95 But it didn’t hold up in a 2017 meta-analysis that compared saturated fatty acids to polyunsaturated fatty acids for their effects on heart disease and death.96 This was probably for three reasons. First

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Third, many trials were designed incompetently, with changes in factors other than the diets that could have affected their results.99 The conclusion of the meta-analysis was that there was little compelling evidence for the benefits of replacing saturated with unsaturated fat, and that previous meta-analyses – the ones on which

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so. The first thing to do is to search to see if there are any published replications.6 There might also be a review or meta-analysis of the main result, or of similar results, that can tell you if this study is just an outlier, and also whether its result

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). Of course, reviews and meta-analyses can themselves be corrupted by poor research and publication bias in their source material; if you find a meta-analysis of studies that were all themselves pre-registered, then you’ve hit the jackpot, but I don’t think I’ve ever encountered such a

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31 July 2018; https://www.the-scientist.com/features/replication-failures-highlight-biases-in-ecology-and-evolution-science-64475. Sparrows: Alfredo Sánchez-Tójar et al., ‘Meta-analysis challenges a textbook example of status signalling and demonstrates publication bias’, eLife 7 (13 Nov. 2008): e37385; https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.37385.001

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-version-of-report-suggests-fujii-will-take-retraction-record-with-172/ 92.  Daniele Fanelli, ‘How Many Scientists Fabricate and Falsify Research? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Survey Data’, PLOS ONE 4, no. 5 (29 May 2009): e5738; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005738 93.  Ibid. 94.  Gross, ‘

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Zarychanski et al., ‘Association of Hydroxyethyl Starch Administration With Mortality and Acute Kidney Injury in Critically Ill Patients Requiring Volume Resuscitation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, JAMA 309, no. 7 (20 Feb. 2013): pp. 678–88; https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.430 122.  And yet, even after 100

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that children with autism spectrum disorder have higher levels of some gastrointestinal symptoms (B. O. McElhanon et al., ‘Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-Analysis’, Pediatrics 133, no. 5 (1 May 2014): pp. 872–83; https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3995), but there’s no evidence that

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, dir. (Twenty Twenty Television, 2004); https://youtu.be/7UbL8opM6TM 126.  Luke E. Taylor et al., ‘Vaccines Are Not Associated with Autism: An Evidence-Based Meta-Analysis of Case-Control and Cohort Studies’, Vaccine 32, no. 29 (June 2014): pp. 3623–29; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.04.085

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ed. (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2016). 26.  The impact a vaccine has on reducing mortality from a disease was the subject of the first ever medical meta-analysis, carried out by the statistician Karl Pearson in 1904 (the disease being typhoid) – though the technique hadn’t yet been named

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2288 (5 Nov. 1904): pp. 1243–46; https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.2288.1243. A useful history and summary of meta-analysis is provided in: Jessica Gurevitch et al., ‘Meta-Analysis and the Science of Research Synthesis’, Nature 555, no. 7695 (Mar. 2018): pp. 175–82; https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25753

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. Climate change: A. J. Challinor et al., ‘A Meta-Analysis of Crop Yield under Climate Change and Adaptation’, Nature Climate Change 4, no. 4 (April 2014): pp. 287–91; https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2153

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58; https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000116. For another example, this time from priming research, with similar results, see Paul Lodder et al., ‘A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Money Priming’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 148, no. 4 (April 2019): pp. 688–712; https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000570 30.  Panayiotis A

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of Medicine 358, no. 3 (17 Jan. 2008): pp. 252–60; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa065779. At the time of writing, the most recent meta-analysis of antidepressants does show a (modest) effect on depression symptoms: Andrea Cipriani et al., ‘Comparative Efficacy and Acceptability of 21 Antidepressant Drugs for the Acute

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Treatment of Adults with Major Depressive Disorder: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis’, Lancet 391, no. 10128 (April 2018): pp. 1357–66; https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32802-7 33.  Akira Onishi & Toshi A.

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pp. 931–37; https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdw691 35.  There’s a whole set of techniques to adjust the effect size in your meta-analysis when you discover that there’s publication bias. Since these are guesswork (about how much you should reduce the effect size) stacked on guesswork (

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and Wastes Billions (New York: Basic Books, 2017). 84.  This has been called the ‘Garbage In, Garbage Out’ principle in meta-analysis. Morton Hunt, How Science Takes Stock: The Story of Meta-Analysis (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998). 85.  The absolute number of industry-funded trials has increased over time, although their proportion

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/is-stereotype-threat-overcooked-overstated-and-oversold 101.  Paulette C. Flore & Jelte M. Wicherts, ‘Does Stereotype Threat Influence Performance of Girls in Stereotyped Domains? A Meta-Analysis’, Journal of School Psychology 53, no. 1 (Feb. 2015): pp. 25–44; https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jsp.2014.10.002 and Paulette

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in stereotype threat studies, see Oren R. Shewach et al., ‘Stereotype Threat Effects in Settings with Features Likely versus Unlikely in Operational Test Settings: A Meta-Analysis’, Journal of Applied Psychology 104, no. 12 (Dec. 2019): pp. 1514–34; https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000420 102.  Subsequently, the same authors ran

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://doi.org/10.3389/978-2-88945-434-1 104.  Jill B. Becker et al, ‘Female Rats Are Not More Variable than Male Rats: A Meta-Analysis of Neuroscience Studies’, Biology of Sex Differences 7, no. 1 (Dec. 2016): 34; https://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-016-0087-5 105.  International

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there have been a great many reliable twin studies since the time of Cyril Burt. For a review, see Tinca J. C. Polderman et al., ‘Meta-Analysis of the Heritability of Human Traits Based on Fifty Years of Twin Studies’, Nature Genetics 47, no. 7 (July 2015): 702–9; https://doi.

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2003): pp. 1141–42; https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1146 55.  Marcus R. Munafò et al., ‘Serotonin Transporter (5-HTTLPR) Genotype and Amygdala Activation: A Meta-Analysis’, Biological Psychiatry 63, no. 9 (May 2008): pp. 852–57; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.08.016 56.  Nowadays you can send

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/ 62.  For example, low power is mentioned in the Abstract of: H. Clarke et al., ‘Association of the 5-HTTLPR Genotype and Unipolar Depression: A Meta-Analysis’, Psychological Medicine 40, no. 11 (Nov. 2010): pp. 1767–78; https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710000516. Incidentally, you can bet that there was a

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average of the controls. If there was no effect, the probability of this would be 50 per cent (the averages are identical). In the meta-analysis, the mindset effect meant that those who’d been trained to have a growth mindset had a 52.3 per cent chance of being higher

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than the average of the control group. Calculated using https://rpsychologist.com/d3/cohend/ 36.  In the meta-analysis, there was some evidence that particularly at-risk children (those from poorer backgrounds, for example) might benefit more from mindset interventions. This was also

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the case in a recent large-scale study by proponents of growth mindsets, which found similar results to the meta-analysis in general. David S. Yeager et al., ‘A National Experiment Reveals Where a Growth Mindset Improves Achievement’, Nature 573, no. 7774 (Sept. 2019): pp.

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/books/why-we-sleep/ 51.  Xiaoli Shen et al., ‘Nighttime Sleep Duration, 24-Hour Sleep Duration and Risk of All-Cause Mortality among Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies’, Scientific Reports 6, no. 1 (Feb. 2016): p. 21480; https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21480 52.  Yuheng Chen et al. (

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2018), ‘Sleep Duration and the Risk of Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Including Dose–Response Relationship’, BMC Cancer 18, no. 1 (Dec. 2018): p. 1149; https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-018-5025-y 53.  Andrew Gelman

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. nih.gov/pubmed/13592638 75.  Wenjia Hui et al., ‘Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Treatment of Recurrent C. Difficile Infection: An Updated Randomized Controlled Trial Meta-Analysis’, PLOS ONE 14, no. 1 (2019): e0210016; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210016; Theodore Rokkas et al., ‘A Network

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/in-depth/fat/art-20045550 96.  Steven Hamley, ‘The Effect of Replacing Saturated Fat with Mostly N-6 Polyunsaturated Fat on Coronary Heart Disease: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials’, Nutrition Journal 16, no. 1 (Dec. 2017): p. 30; https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-017-0254-5 97.  Also,

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, that are more conservative and thus come up with lower numbers. 38.  Bram Duyx et al., ‘Scientific Citations Favor Positive Results: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 88 (Aug. 2017): pp. 92–101; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.06.002; see also R. Leimu

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.org/10.1093/ije/dyw314. For an historical example of triangulation, see George Davey Smith, ‘Smoking and Lung Cancer: Causality, Cornfield and an Early Observational Meta-Analysis’, International Journal of Epidemiology 38, no. 5 (1 Oct. 2009): pp. 1169–71; https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyp317. Again, though, if we

Hormone Repair Manual

by Lara Briden  · 14 Apr 2021

. Black cohosh Cimicifuga racemosa (black cohosh) is a popular herbal medicine for hot flushes that has undergone several clinical trials with mixed results. A 2010 meta-analysis concluded it may slightly improve menopausal symptoms, but much of that may be due to the placebo effect. How it works: Black cohosh does not

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Chapter 4? Then a low-histamine diet is probably the best plan. Speak to your clinician. Supplements for migraine prevention Magnesium According to a 2016 meta-analysis, magnesium is one of the best supplements for migraine prevention and Dr Alexander Mauskop, a neurologist at the New York Headache Center, recommends that all

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John’s wort St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) is a herbal medicine with a long tradition of use for depression and anxiety. A recent meta-analysis concluded that it is effective for the mood symptoms of menopause. How it works: It reduces inflammation and boosts serotonin, dopamine and GABA. It also

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better way to assess hypothyroidism is to consider TSH together with free T4 (the thyroid hormone thyroxine), observed symptoms and thyroid antibodies. TIP A 2020 meta-analysis study concluded that a blood test for free T4 (thyroxine) offers a more accurate assessment of the clinical state hypothyroidism than does the standard measure

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without vitamin K2 can increase the risk of heart disease. TIP Vitamin K2 can also help varicose veins. Fish oil According to an authoritative new meta-analysis study, supplementation with EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) omega-3 is effective for reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. ‘Whatever patients are

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supplement that provides at least 720 mg of EPA, which usually equates to 2000 mg of total fish oil. Some of the studies in the meta-analysis used up to 5500 mg of fish oil. If you take blood-thinning medication, check with your doctor. Checklist for risk reduction of heart attack

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top of your brain. menopause Menopause means the cessation of menstruation. It’s the life phase that begins one year after your last period. meta-analysis A meta-analysis uses statistical methods to combine the results of many different studies in order to determine wider trends. microbiome The community of microorganisms in a particular

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. . .: S Haghayegh, S Khoshnevis, MH Smolensky et al, ‘Before-bedtime passive body heating by warm shower or bath to improve sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Sleep Medicine Reviews, 46, August 2019, pp124–35. 98: Interestingly, a bath in the afternoon can . . .: C Wilson, ‘Hot baths could improve depression as much

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Ding, SN Bhupathiraju, M Chen et al, ‘Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and a dose-response meta-analysis’, Diabetes Care, 37(2), February 2014, pp569–86; RD Heath, M Brahmbhatt, AC Tahan et al, ‘Coffee: the magical bean for liver diseases’, World Journal

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(2), February 2012, pp488–97; A Lafranconi, A Micek, P De Paoli et al, ‘Coffee intake decreases risk of postmenopausal breast cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis on prospective cohort studies’, Nutrients, 10(2), January 2018, article 112. 122: Your tolerance for caffeine depends on . . .: RV Patwardhan, PV Desmond, RF Johnson & S

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estrogen is anabolic . . .: AA Javed, AJ Mayhew, AK Shea & P Raina, ‘Association between hormone therapy and muscle mass in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, JAMA Network Open, 2(8), August 2019, article e1910154. 138: The best way to build and maintain muscle . . .: J Viljoen, T Crymble & C Christie, ‘Changes

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age at onset of menopause and time since onset of menopause with cardiovascular outcomes, intermediate vascular traits, and all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, JAMA Cardiology, 1(7), October 2016, pp767–76. 153: Breast pain is a sign of high estrogen . . .: CJ Crandall, AK Aragaki, RT Chlebowski et al

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, pp7–11. 158: There have been hundreds of studies of soy isoflavones . . .: MN Chen, CC Lin & CF Liu, ‘Efficacy of phytoestrogens for menopausal symptoms: a meta-analysis and systematic review’, Climacteric, 18(2), April 2015, pp260–9; IMCM Rietjens, J Louisse & K Beekmann 2017, op. cit. 158: On the plus side, phytoestrogens

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. 164: For example, a recent systematic review found . . .: H Cramer, W Peng & R Lauche, ‘Yoga for menopausal symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Maturitas, 109, March 2018, pp13–25. 165: A 2010 meta-analysis concluded . . .: T Shams, MS Setia, R Hemmings et al, ‘Efficacy of black cohosh-containing preparations on menopausal symptoms: a

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meta-analysis’, Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 16(1), January–February 2010, pp36–44. 165: There were early reports of liver toxicity . . .: B Naser, J Schnitker,

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MJ Minkin et al, ‘Suspected black cohosh hepatotoxicity: no evidence by meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials for isopropanolic black cohosh extract’, Menopause, 18(4), April 2011, pp366–75. 168: The other mechanism by which progesterone improves

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of oligoantigenic diet treatment’, Lancet, 2(8355), October 1983, pp865–9. 177: According to a 2016 meta-analysis . . .: HY Chiu, TH Yeh, YC Huang & PY Chen, ‘Effects of intravenous and oral magnesium on reducing migraine: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials’, Pain Physician, 19(1), January 2016, ppE97–112. 177: Dr Alexander Mauskop

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any kind, including walking . . .: J Firth, B Stubbs, D Vancampfort et al, ‘Effect of aerobic exercise on hippocampal volume in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Neuroimage, 166, February 2018, pp230–8. 182: The goal is to prevent sarcopenia and build muscle . . .: Z Radak, N Hart, L Sarga et al, ‘Exercise

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carnitine as moderators of response’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 164, August 2014, pp76–81. 192: A recent meta-analysis concluded that . . .: YR Liu, YL Jiang, RQ Huang et al, ‘Hypericum perforatum L. preparations for menopause: a meta-analysis of efficacy and safety’, Climacteric, 17(4) August 2014, pp325–35. 193: Supplementation with EPA (eicosapentaenoic

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acid) . . .: Y Liao, B Xie, H Zhang et al, ‘Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis’, Translational Psychiatry, 9(1), August 2019, article 190. 195: In fact, there’s growing evidence that abdominal weight gain . . .: H Kolb, M Stumvoll, W Kramer

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clinical trials, berberine has . . .: H Dong, N Wang, L Zhao & F Lu, ‘Berberine in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systemic review and meta-analysis’, Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012, article 591654; KG Pérez-Rubio, M González-Ortiz, E Martínez-Abundis et al, ‘Effect of berberine administration on

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Madhavan, ‘Does fasting or postprandial state affect thyroid function testing?’, Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 18(5), September 2014, pp705–707. 213: A 2020 meta-analysis study concluded that . . .: SP Fitzgerald, NG Bean, H Falhammar & J Tuke, ‘Clinical parameters are more likely to be associated with thyroid hormone levels than with

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thyrotropin levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Thyroid, June 2020, in press, liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/thy.2019.0535?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr

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for heavy menstrual bleeding . . .: AM van Eijk, G Zulaika, M Lenchner et al, ‘Menstrual cup use, leakage, acceptability, safety, and availability: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Lancet Public Health, 4(8), August 2019, ppe376–e393. 232: Print out a copy of the document . . .: M Leonardi & G Condous, ‘Noninvasive ultrasound diagnosis of

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called excision surgery is . . .: J Pundir, K Omanwa, E Kovoor et al, ‘Laparoscopic excision versus ablation for endometriosis-associated pain: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis’, Journal of Minimally Invasive Gynecology, July–24(5), August 2017, pp747–56. 243: According to the Cochrane Collaboration . . .: J Brown, TJ Crawford, S Datta & A

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significantly more likely to . . .: R Mohammadi, R Tabrizi, K Hessami et al, ‘Correlation of low serum vitamin-D with uterine leiomyoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 18(1), August 2020, article 85. 257: There’s early research to suggest that vitamin D inhibits fibroid cell growth . . .: M

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bone loss include . . .: C Zhou, L Fang, Y Chen et al, ‘Effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on bone mineral density: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Osteoporosis International, 29(6), June 2018, pp1243–51; YT Ghebre, ‘Proton pump inhibitors and osteoporosis: is collagen a direct target?’, Frontiers in Endocrinology (Lausanne), 11

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, XT Zeng, J Wang & L Liu, ‘Association between calcium or vitamin D supplementation and fracture incidence in community-dwelling older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, JAMA, 318(24), December 2017, pp2466–82. 288: Calcium supplements are frequently recommended . . .: MJ Bolland, A Grey & IR Reid, ‘Calcium supplements and cardiovascular risk: 5

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et al, ‘Intake of saturated and trans unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies’, BMJ, 351, August 2015, article h3978. 295: Twenty years later, estrogen is making a bit of a comeback . . .: L Newson, ‘IMS Menopause

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vitamins D and K for bone and cardiovascular health: a narrative review’, International Journal of Endocrinology, 2017, article 7454376. 301: According to an authoritative new meta-analysis study . . .: AA Bernasconi, MM Wiest, CJ Lavie, RV Milani, JA Laukkanen, ‘Effect of omega-3 dosage on cardiovascular outcomes: an updated

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meta-analysis and meta-regression of interventional trials’, Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 17 September 2020, doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.08.034; Elsevier, ‘Authoritative new analysis

Sickening: How Big Pharma Broke American Health Care and How We Can Repair It

by John Abramson  · 15 Dec 2022  · 362pp  · 97,473 words

cardiovascular event — that is, those who have already had a heart attack or a stroke or who have other evidence of arterial blockage. The CTT meta-analysis of 2012 reported that people treated with statin therapy for secondary prevention had 20 percent less risk of having a heart attack or stroke over

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, and mixing them in with a lower-risk population artificially inflates the benefit of statins in low-risk people. In 2012, the CTT published a meta-analysis designed specifically to determine the net effect of cholesterol-lowering “with statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease.” (Remember, only the CTT

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, so only the CTT could calculate the effect of statin therapy among people whose ten-year risk was less than 20 percent.) But the CTT meta-analysis did a bait and switch, concluding statin therapy reduced the risk of death for people who did not already have cardiovascular disease. They simply failed

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risk of death for people at low risk (ten-year risk of less than 20 percent) of cardiovascular disease? Because the findings from the 2012 meta-analysis were sure to play a pivotal role in determining who should receive statin therapy — since the 2013 ACC/AHA cholesterol-lowering guidelines were soon to

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it. Again in June 2020, the same three coauthors of the 2013 BMJ article and I responded to CTT members’ claim, based on their 2019 meta-analysis, that all people over age seventy-five should be taking a statin, whether or not they have a history of cardiovascular disease. Our letter, published

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Review of the antiviral drug Tamiflu, used to treat and prevent influenza, demonstrates the difficulty of incorporating complete evidence into systematic — even Cochrane — reviews. A meta-analysis published in 2003 showed Tamiflu reduced the risk of bronchitis, pneumonia, and hospitalizations when given to adults with acute flu-like symptoms. Relying on these

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pandemic, a Japanese pediatrician, Dr. Keiji Hayashi, questioned the Cochrane Review’s conclusion. Dr. Hayashi had noticed eight of the ten studies in the 2003 meta-analysis — all sponsored by the drug’s manufacturer, Roche — had never been published and the results could not be verified, not even to the limited extent

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that peer review can verify results. The authors of the 2003 meta-analysis had had access to those unpublished results because four of the six were Roche employees. Faced with this new information Dr. Tom Jefferson, lead author

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High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein or Dyslipidemia: Results from the Justification for the Use of Statins in Prevention: An Intervention Trial Evaluating Rosuvastatin (JUPITER) and Meta-Analysis of Women from Primary Prevention Trials,” Circulation 121 (2010): 1069–77. on the NHLBI website: “ATP III Update 2004: Implications of Recent Clinical Trials for

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-information, and “Principles for Relationships with Industry,” American College of Cardiology, https://www.acc.org/about-acc/industry-relations/principles-for-relationships-with-industry. CTT meta-analysis of 2012: CTT Collaborators, “The Effects of Lowering LDL Cholesterol with Statin Therapy in People at Low Risk of Vascular Disease

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: Meta-Analysis of Individual Data from 27 Randomised Trials,” Lancet 380 (2012): 581–90. 20 percent ten-year risk: CTT Collaborators, “The Effects.” “with statin therapy in

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” provide an advantage: “Safety, Effectiveness, and Cost Effectiveness of Long Acting Versus Intermediate Acting Insulin for Patients with Type 1 Diabetes: Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis,” British Medical Journal 349 (2014): g5459. “despite the advantages”: American Diabetes Association, “Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes — 2020,” Diabetes

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et al., “Methotrexate Monotherapy and Methotrexate Combination Therapy with Traditional and Biologic Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs for Rheumatoid Arthritis: Abridged Cochrane Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis,” British Medical Journal 353 (2016): i1777. provide adequate relief: Nick Bansback et al., “Triple Therapy Versus Biologic Therapy for Active Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Cost-Effectiveness

The Barbell Prescription: Strength Training for Life After 40

by Jonathon Sullivan and Andy Baker  · 2 Dec 2016  · 742pp  · 166,595 words

Endurance Training,” 901-911; Burgomaster et al., “Similar Metabolic Adaptations,” 151-160. 8. Hickson, “Interference of Strength Development,” 255-264; Wilson et al., “Concurrent Training: Meta-analysis,” 2293-2307. 9. Hawley, “Molecular Responses to Strength and Endurance Training,” 355-361; Vissing et al., “Differentiated mTOR but not AMPK Signaling,” 355-366; Atherton

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Training and Type 2 Diabetes,” 1933-1941; Sparks, Johannsen, and Church, “Nine Months of Combined Training,” 1694-1702. 28. Utomi et al., “Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Training Mode.” 29. Saltin and Astrand, “Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Athletes,” 353-358. 30. Saltin and Astrand, “Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Athletes,” 353-358

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-h Energy Expenditure,” 845-848. 7. Reynolds and Bradford, “Death by Prowler.” 8. Hickson, “Interference of Strength Development,” 255-264; Wilson et al., “Concurrent Training: Meta-analysis,” 2293-2307; Hawley , “Molecular Responses to Strength and Endurance Training,” 355-361; Vissing et al., “Differentiated mTOR but not AMPK Signaling,” 355-366; Atherton et

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. Circulation 2006;113:2642-2650. Bridle C, Spanjers K, Patel S, et al. Effect of exercise on depression severity in older people: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Br J Psych 2012;201:180-185. Brooks GA, Fahey TD, Baldwin KM. Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications (4th

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SM, et al. Evidence from randomised controlled trials did not support the introduction of dietary fat guidelines in 1977 and 1983: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Heart 2014;doi:10.1136/openhrt-2014-000196 Harris KA, Holly RG. Physiological response to circuit weight training in borderline hypertensive subjects. Med Sci

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, et al. Use of calcium in combination with vitamin D supplementation to prevent fractures and bone loss in people aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2007;370(9588):657-666. Tarnopolsky MA, Safdar A. The potential benefits of creatine and conjugated linoleic acid as adjuncts to resistance training in

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and power training on muscle fiber type shifting. JSCR 2012:26(6);1724-1729. Wilson JM, Marin PJ, Rhea MR, et al. Concurrent training: a meta-analysis examining interference of aerobic and resistance exercises. JSCR 2012;26(8):2293-2307. Wisløff, U., Ellingsen, Ø.,& Kemi, O. J. High-intensity interval training to

Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress

by Steven Pinker  · 13 Feb 2018  · 1,034pp  · 241,773 words

miracle drugs that work no better than the placebo, treatments with side effects worse than the disease, and trumpeted benefits that wash out in the meta-analysis. Medical progress today is more Sisyphus than Singularity. Lacking the gift of prophecy, no one can say whether scientists will ever find a cure for

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, and post-Soviet Russia.33 Recent reviews of what does and doesn’t work in crime prevention back up Eisner’s advisory, particularly a massive meta-analysis by the sociologists Thomas Abt and Christopher Winship of 2,300 studies evaluating just about every policy, plan, program, project, initiative, intervention, nostrum, and gimmick

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them as they emerged. Yet surprising as it is, the Flynn effect is no longer in doubt, and it has recently been confirmed in a meta-analysis of 271 samples from thirty-one countries with four million people.31 Figure 16-5 plots the “secular rise in IQ scores,” as psychologists call

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of an ‘epidemic’ may arise from heightened awareness of a disorder that was long under-diagnosed by clinicians.”75 And the title of the biggest meta-analysis to date, which looked at the prevalence of anxiety and depression between 1990 and 2010 in the entire world, did not leave readers in suspense

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all.”77 Whether he was saying that or not, Auden’s name for our era has stuck, and it provided the obvious title for a meta-analysis by Twenge which showed that scores on a standard anxiety test administered to children and college students between 1952 and 1993 rose by a full

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) will answer a question like “Does gun control reduce crime?” or “Does a minimum wage increase unemployment?” with “Wait, let me look up the latest meta-analysis” rather than with a patellar reflex predictable from their politics? A day when writers on the right and left abandon the Chicago Way of debating

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and afterword; Deary 2001; Plomin & Deary 2015; Ritchie 2015. 30. Flynn effect not explained by hybrid vigor: Flynn 2007; Pietschnig & Voracek 2015. 31. Flynn effect meta-analysis: Pietschnig & Voracek 2015. 32. End of the Flynn effect: Pietschnig & Voracek 2015. 33. Evaluating candidate causes of the Flynn effect: Flynn 2007; Pietschnig & Voracek 2015

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Press. Kuncel, N. R., Klieger, D. K., Connelly, B. S., & Ones, D. S. 2013. Mechanical versus clinical data combination in selection and admissions decisions: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 1060–72. Kunda, Z. 1990. The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480–98. Kuran, T. 2010. Why the

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rates in the United States. Social Science and Medicine, 114, 151–60. Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. 2015. One century of global IQ gains: A formal meta-analysis of the Flynn effect (1909–2013). Perspectives in Psychological Science, 10, 282–306. Piketty, T. 2013. Capital in the twenty-first century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

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with sources. Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University. Sage, J. C. 2010. Birth cohort changes in anxiety from 1993–2006: A cross-temporal meta-analysis. Master’s thesis, San Diego State University, San Diego. Sanchez, D. L., Nelson, J. H., Johnston, J. C., Mileva, A., & Kammen, D. M. 2015. Biomass

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., Gentile, B., DeWall, C. N., Ma, D., Lacefield, K., et al. 2010. Birth cohort increases in psychopathology among young Americans, 1938–2007: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of the MMPI. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 145–54. Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. 2002. Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences

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on the children’s depression inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578–88. Twenge, J. M., Sherman, R. A., & Lyubomirsky, S. 2016. More happiness for young people and less for mature

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: Random House. Woodley, M. A., te Nijenhuis, J., & Murphy, R. 2013. Were the Victorians cleverer than us? The decline in general intelligence estimated from a meta-analysis of the slowing of simple reaction time. Intelligence, 41, 843–50. Woodward, B., Shurkin, J., & Gordon, D. 2009. Scientists greater than Einstein: The biggest lifesavers

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