operation paperclip

Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America
by Annie Jacobsen
Published 11 Feb 2014

“I also know that he strictly refused to take part [in] or permit scientific research work which was damaging to human health,” Schäfer wrote. The following year, Dr. Konrad Schäfer would be on a boat headed for America, an Operation Paperclip contract in hand. As for Dr. Blome, he was seen as a highly desirable recruit for Operation Paperclip. Blome allegedly knew more about bubonic plague research than anyone else in the world. But, given his former position in Hitler’s inner circle, coupled with the fact that Blome had worn the Golden Party Badge, bringing him to America as part of Operation Paperclip remained too difficult for the U.S. Army to justify. But as the Cold War gained momentum and intense suspicion of the Soviets increased, even someone like Kurt Blome would eventually be deemed eligible for Operation Paperclip.

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—Heraclitus CHAPTER TWENTY In the Dark Shadows The Cold War became a battlefield marked by doublespeak. Disguise, distortion, and deception were accepted as reality. Truth was promised in a serum. And Operation Paperclip, born of the ashes of World War II, was the inciting incident in this hall of mirrors. But in 1952, the heedless momentum of Operation Paperclip began to slow as conflicts emerged between the JIOA and the CIA over policies with the new West German government. German officials warned High Commissioner John J. McCloy that Operation Paperclip violated NATO regulations and even America’s own policies for governance in Germany. On February 21, 1952, McCloy sent a memo to the U.S.

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Considered one of the Reich’s top ten pilots, he was asked by armaments minister Albert Speer to pilot Speer’s escape to Greenland. Under Operation Paperclip, he worked at Wright Field from 1947 until 1977. Major General Hugh Knerr: Post-war commanding general at Air Technical Service Command, Wright Field. An early advocate of Operation Paperclip, he sent a memo to the War Department encouraging them to overlook German scientists’ Nazi pasts. “Pride and face saving have no place in national insurance,” he said. Karl Krauch: Chairman of IG Farben board of directors and Göring’s Plenipotentiary for Special Questions of Chemical Production. Courted for Operation Paperclip while incarcerated at Nuremberg, he was convicted alongside colleague Otto Ambros.

Chasing the Moon: The People, the Politics, and the Promise That Launched America Into the Space Age
by Robert Stone and Alan Andres
Published 3 Jun 2019

The plan progressed so rapidly that the first group of German scientists and engineers arrived on American soil before President Truman became aware of the program’s existence. It began as Operation Overcast, an initiative focused on taking possession of Nazi scientific knowledge and technology for use in the war against Japan. However, after the Japanese surrender, the larger program was renamed Operation Paperclip and included many more former Third Reich engineers, technicians, and scientists. The code name arose from the Office of Strategic Services’ use of paperclips to mark the intelligence files of scientists and engineers selected for inclusion in the program. Willy Ley assumed his unique knowledge of rocket science and his experience working with Hermann Oberth would help him obtain a financially secure job with either the United States government or an American corporation expanding into rocket development.

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For decades, significant details about how they and other German scientists were vetted and cleared for entry were shrouded in secrecy. But it is undeniable that the United States government concealed the fact that it gave preferential treatment to some German scientists and engineers who had been Nazi Party members or suspected of complicity in war crimes. The first public news of Operation Paperclip came in an understated press release issued by the War Department on October 1, 1945. It announced that a carefully selected number of “outstanding German scientists” would be brought to the United States to impart technical knowledge vital to the nation’s security. The one-page release said that they would be in the United States on a temporary basis and all had made the journey voluntarily.

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Not long afterward, Lasser was ridiculed on the floor of the House of Representatives as “a crackpot with mental delusions that we can travel to the Moon!” The War Department’s decision to bring scientists and engineers from Hitler’s Third Reich to work for the U.S. government did not go unopposed. Prominent physicists such as Albert Einstein and Hans Bethe as well as former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt criticized Operation Paperclip. But the larger looming reality of the Soviet Union’s brutal domination of Eastern Europe, legitimate fears of domestic espionage, and reports of a possible Russian nuclear-weapons program silenced most public resistance to the program. No congressmen delivered speeches questioning whether the German scientists posed a security risk or held contrary political views.

Nuclear War: A Scenario
by Annie Jacobsen
Published 25 Mar 2024

ALSO BY ANNIE JACOBSEN Area 51 Operation Paperclip The Pentagon’s Brain Phenomena Surprise, Kill, Vanish First Platoon An imprint of Penguin Random House LLC penguinrandomhouse.com Copyright © 2024 by Anne M. Jacobsen Penguin Random House supports copyright. Copyright fuels creativity, encourages diverse voices, promotes free speech, and creates a vibrant culture. Thank you for buying an authorized edition of this book and for complying with copyright laws by not reproducing, scanning, or distributing any part of it in any form without permission.

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No one knows what will actually happen in a real event. The president is being taken to the Raven Rock Mountain Complex, the Pentagon’s Alternate National Military Command Center, also known as Site R. The bunker was built during the Cold War. Its original plans were drawn by the Nazi engineer turned U.S. postwar Operation Paperclip scientist Georg Rickhey, whose credentials the American military admired, and who had built Hitler’s underground bunker in Berlin during the war. The distance from the White House to Site R is roughly seventy miles. Marine One usually takes around thirty minutes to get there, depending on takeoff and landing times.

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GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Paperclip scientist Georg Rickhey: Georg Rickhey, “Condensed Statement of My Education and Activities,” NARA, Record Group 330, March 4, 1948; Bundesarchiv Ludwigsburg, Georg Rickhey file, B162/25299, author copy. For more on Rickhey, see Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip, 79–80, 251–260. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the words of former: Bruce G. Blair, Sebastien Philippe, Sharon K. Weiner, “Right of Launch: Command and Control Vulnerabilities after a Limited Nuclear Strike,” War on the Rocks, November 20, 2020. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT also accompanied 24/7/365: Fred Kaplan, “How Close Did the Capitol Rioters Get to the Nuclear ‘Football’?”

Area 51: An Uncensored History of America's Top Secret Military Base
by Annie Jacobsen
Published 16 May 2011

It had come off the same German slave-labor production lines as the rockets that the Third Reich had used to terrorize the people of London, Antwerp, and Paris during the war. The U.S. Army had confiscated nearly two hundred V-2s from inside Peenemünde, Germany’s rocket manufacturing plant, and shipped them to White Sands beginning the first month after the war. Under a parallel, even more secret project called Operation Paperclip—the complete details of which remain classified as of 2011—118 captured German rocket scientists were given new lives and careers and brought to the missile range. Hundreds of others would follow. Two of these German scientists were now readying Hermes for its test launch. One, Wernher Von Braun, had invented this rocket, which was the world’s first ballistic missile, or flying bomb.

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Allegations of sabotage by the German scientists who were in charge of the top secret project overwhelmed the workload of the intelligence officers at White Sands. Attitudes toward the former Third Reich scientists who were now working for the United States tended to fall into two distinct categories at the time. There was the let-bygones-be-bygones approach, an attitude summed up by the Army officer in charge of Operation Paperclip, Bosquet Wev, who stated that to preoccupy oneself with “picayune details” about German scientists’ past actions was “beating a dead Nazi horse.” The logic behind this thinking was that a disbanded Third Reich presented no future harm to America but a burgeoning Soviet military certainly did—and if the Germans were working for us, they couldn’t be working for them.

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The idea that the American military and its intelligence agents would overlook war crimes and crimes against humanity in the name of advancing American science was, and continues to be, an odious one. It is likely that this is the reason why the federal government has never fully declassified the Operation Paperclip files. In 1999, a government panel released 126,000 pages of previously classified documents on former German Paperclips, but the panel also revealed that there were over six hundred million still-classified pages waiting “for review.” No significant release has occured since. In March of 1957, Bevacqua finally passed his tests and arrived at Area 51, where the living conditions had improved.

The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top-Secret Military Research Agency
by Annie Jacobsen
Published 14 Sep 2015

The survival of so many of the Nazi high command in Berlin was predicated on the underground engineering skills of a few top Nazi scientists, including Franz Xaver Dorsch, Walter Schieber, and Georg Rickhey, all three of whom were hired by the U.S. Army to work on secret U.S. underground engineering projects after the war, as part of Operation Paperclip. Plans for Raven Rock were first drawn up in 1948, including some by Rickhey. Work began shortly after the Russians detonated their own atomic bomb, known in the West as Joe-1, in August 1949, and by 1950, construction crews with top secret clearances were working around the clock to build the first underground presidential bunker and command post.

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Von Braun was nothing if not entitled, and in his discussions regarding the new position, he insisted that were he to transfer his services over to the Pentagon, a sizable group of his German rocket scientist colleagues would have to accompany him there. Army intelligence had classified dossiers on each of von Braun’s 113 German colleagues. They were all part of Operation Paperclip, the secret intelligence program that had brought Nazi scientists to America after the war. Many of von Braun’s rocket team members had been ardent Nazis, members of ultra-nationalistic paramilitary organizations, including the SS and the SA. “For a while Wernher von Braun appeared to have the job but to get him it was necessary to take his 10–15 man package of [German] associates and that was not acceptable,” wrote ARPA administrator J.

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And my fellow writers from group: Kirston Mann, Sabrina Weill, Michelle Fiordaliso, Nicole Lucas Haimes, and Annette Murphy. The only thing that makes me happier than finishing a book is the daily joy I get from Kevin, Finley, and Jett. You guys are my best friends. ALSO BY ANNIE JACOBSEN Operation Paperclip Area 51 NOTES Abbreviations Used in Notes ARCHIVES CIA Central Intelligence Agency Library, digital collection DSOH U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, digital collection Geisel Geisel Library, University of California, San Diego, CA JFK John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, MA LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory Research Library, Los Alamos, NM LOC Library of Congress, Washington, DC NACP National Archives and Records Administration at College Park, MD NAR National Archives and Records Administration at Riverside, CA UCSB American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA VO67A VO-67 Association, Navy Observation Squadron Sixty-Seven, digital collection GOVERNMENT AGENCIES & AFFILIATES ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DNA Defense Nuclear Agency GAO General Accounting Office IDA Institute for Defense Analyses Prologue 1 DARPA as an agency: Inspector general’s report, “Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Ethics Program Met Federal Government Standards,” January 24, 2013; “Breakthrough Technologies for National Security,” DARPA 2015. 2 “We are faced”: DARPA press release,“President’s Budget Request for DARPA Aims to Fund Promising Ideas, Help Regain Prior Levels,” March 5, 2014. 3 eighty-seven nations: Interview with Noel Sharkey, August 2013.

1946: The Making of the Modern World
by Victor Sebestyen
Published 30 Sep 2014

If the Allies, with their judges’ courts and fine rhetoric about punishing the guilty, found pragmatic reasons to let some Nazis thrive, why should the Germans be more rigorous about prosecuting less serious malefactors? This was a question that informed Germans repeatedly asked Allied officials. They never received convincing answers. In the US Army’s highly efficient Operation Paperclip, around four hundred scientists and technicians were arrested, interrogated and, if they were of any potential use, shipped out of Germany, whatever their political beliefs or human-rights records might have been. The Third Reich’s top technical brains were plundered and shared out between the US and Britain – partly as war booty, but just as important, to keep them and their work out of the hands of the Russians.

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Cordell Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, Macmillan, 1948; Churchill quoted by Moran, Winston Churchill, p. 399; Cadogan memo, TNA: CAB 122. 65. 53. 18. Kennan, Memoirs, p. 465. 19. TNA: PREM 4. 109. 102. 28. 20. Shawcross to Attlee, 20 January 1946, TNA: PREM 4 108. 203.34; Attlee to Shawcross, 22 January 1946, TNA: PREM 4 108. 203. 63. 21. Report about Operation Paperclip, FRUS, 1945, vol. 4, p. 455; quote about Rudolph, OMGUS Intelligence Department, RG 19.357. 22. OMGUS Intelligence Department, RG 16. 454. 23. Applebaum, Iron Curtain, p. 279. 24. Ibid., p. 242. 25. Andreas-Friedrich, Battleground Berlin, 26 April 1946. 26. Zubok, Inside the Kremlin, p. 312. 20.

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K. ref1 Azerbaijan Democratic Party (ADP) ref1 Azerbaijan–Iran conflict ref1, ref2, ref3 Bagirov, Mir ref1 Bagramyan, Ivan ref1 Balfour Declaration (1917) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Barker, Evelyn ref1 Barraclough, Brigadier John ref1 Bavaria ref1 Bednarczuk, Wincenty ref1 Begin, Menachem ref1, ref2, ref3 Belsen camp ref1 Ben Gurion, David ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 Beneš, Edvard ref1, ref2 Bengal famine (1943–4) ref1 Beria, Lavrenti ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Beria, Sergo ref1 Berlin ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 black market ref1 crime in post-war ref1 Berman, Jakob ref1 Bernard, Henri ref1 Betar movement ref1 Bevan, Aneurin ref1 Bevin, Ernest ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8, ref9, ref10, ref11, ref12, ref13 Big Freeze ref1 Biriya, Mohammed ref1, ref2 black market France ref1 Germany ref1 Japan ref1 Blankenhorn, Herbert ref1 Błaszczyk, Henryk ref1 Bohlen, Charles ‘Chips’ ref1 Bohr, Niels ref1 Böll, Heinrich Kreuz ohne Liebe ref1 Boris Godunov (opera) ref1 Botting, Bernhard ref1 Bowers, Faubion ref1, ref2 Bracken, Brendan ref1 Brecht, Bertolt The Threepenny Opera ref1 Britain ref1 anti-Semitist attacks in ref1 and atomic bomb ref1 Attlee’s reforms and social provisions ref1 campaign to help Germans by public and press ref1 and de-Nazification ref1 economic problems and debts ref1, ref2 election (1945) ref1 food rationing ref1, ref2 and forced repatriation of Soviet citizens ref1 and German occupation zone ref1 see also Germany: Western Zone and Greece ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 and India ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 and Iran ref1 and Jewish immigration to Palestine issue ref1, ref2 loan negotiations with United States ref1 and Palestine ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 and Poland ref1, ref2 post-war military force ref1 relationship with United States ref1, ref2, ref3 ‘shrinking loaf’ scandal ref1 view of Russian threat ref1 wanting Jewish refugees to return to Eastern Europe ref1 and war-crime trials ref1 withdrawal from India ref1, ref2 see also Attlee, Clement; Churchill, Winston Brooke, Sir Alan ref1 Brooks, Louise ref1 Buck, Pearl S. ref1 Bulgaria ref1, ref2 Bullard, Sir Reader ref1, ref2 Burrows, Sir Frederick ref1 Bush, Vannever ref1 Byrnes, James ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Cadogan, Sir Alexander ref1, ref2, ref3 Caffery, Jefferson ref1 Cairncross, John ref1 Calcutta riots ref1 Callaghan, James ref1 Cameron, James ref1 Camus, Albert ref1, ref2 Caro, Robert ref1 Castle, Barbara ref1 Catholic Church ref1 Cavan, Frederick Lambart, Earl of ref1 Cavendish-Bentinck, Victor ref1, ref2 Celler, Emmanuel ref1 Channon, Henry ‘Chips’ ref1n Chaudhuri, Nirad ref1 Chiang Kai-shek ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7, ref8 Chiang Mei-ling ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 China ref1, ref2 corruption of Nationalist government ref1, ref2 economy ref1 Mao’s rectification campaigns ref1 occupation of by Japan ref1, ref2 opium trade ref1 poverty ref1 Chinese Civil War ref1, ref2, ref3 communist victory (1949) ref1 peace negotiations and cease-fires ref1, ref2, ref3 and Soviet Union ref1, ref2 and United States ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Chinese People’s Liberation Army ref1, ref2 Christian Democratic Union ref1 Churchill, Winston ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 and Atlantic Charter ref1 and Big Freeze ref1 and French ref1 Fulton (‘Iron Curtain’) speech ref1, ref2, ref3 and Gandhi ref1 and Greece ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 and India ref1, ref2 loss of 1945 election ref1 opposition to war-crimes trials ref1 and Palestine ref1 and ‘percentages deal’ ref1, ref2, ref3 and Poland ref1, ref2, ref3 relations with Eleanor Roosevelt ref1n Stalin’s view of ref1 view of Molotov ref1 view of Soviet Union ref1 view of Stalin ref1 CIA ref1 Clare, George ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Clark Kerr, Sir Archibald ref1, ref2 Clarke, Frank ref1 Clay, General Lucius ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 Cold War ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 and Long Telegram ref1 origins of phrase ref1 Colmer, William ref1 communism in France ref1 and Jewish–Bolshevik conspiracy ref1 support of in Czechoslovakia ref1 United States anti-communist stance ref1, ref2, ref3 Conant, Professor James ref1 Connolly, Cyril ref1 Control Commission Germany ref1 Cooper, Duff ref1, ref2 Cooper, Susan ref1 Coward, Noël ref1 ‘Don’t Let’s Be Beastly to the Germans’ ref1 Cowles, Gardner ref1n Cripps, Sir Stafford ref1, ref2 Croats forced repatriation of and killing of by Tito ref1 Crosland, Anthony ref1 Crossman, Richard ref1, ref2 CROWCASS (Central Registry of War Criminals and Security Suspects) ref1, ref2 Cunningham, Sir George ref1 Curzon, Lord ref1 Curzon Line ref1 Czechoslovakia ref1, ref2 expulsion and internment of Germans ref1 and Soviet Union ref1 support of communism in ref1 Daily Mirror ref1 Dalton, Hugh ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6, ref7 de Beauvoir, Simone ref1, ref2, ref3 de Gaulle, General Charles ref1, ref2, ref3 Dean, Patrick ref1 Debus, Kurt ref1 Decembrist rising (1825) ref1 Democratic League ref1 de-Nazification ref1 and Britain ref1 and clergy ref1 criticism of ref1 and Fragebogen questionnaire ref1, ref2 and German institutions ref1 and Nuremberg trials ref1, ref2 and Operation Paperclip ref1 and Persilschein certificates ref1, ref2 and the police ref1 problems facing Allies ref1, ref2 scientists and business leaders escaping ref1 Spruchkammer tribunals ref1, ref2, ref3 Dimitrov, Georgi ref1 displaced persons (DPs) camps ref1, ref2 Djilas, Milovan ref1, ref2, ref3 Dönhoff, Marion, Countess von ref1 Dorman, Baruch ref1 Dos Passos, John ref1, ref2 Douglas, Air Marshal Sir Sholto ref1 Drtina, Prokop ref1 Dwarkadas, Kanji ref1 EAM (National Liberation Front) ref1, ref2, ref3 East Germany see Germany Eastern Europe ref1 anti-Jewish massacres ref1 and Soviet Union ref1, ref2 Economist, The ref1 Eden, Anthony ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 EDES (National Republican League) ref1 Edward VIII, King ref1 Edwards, Corwin D. ref1 Ehrenberg, Ilya ref1 Eisenhower, Dwight D. ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 Eisenstein, Sergei ref1 ELAS (Greek People’s Liberation Army) ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5 Ertegün, Mehmet Münir ref1 Etzel see Irgun European Union ref1 Fellers, Brigadier-General Bonner ref1 Fish, Hamilton ref1 Flanner, Janet ref1, ref2, ref3 Flerov, Georgi ref1 food rationing Britain ref1, ref2 France ref1 Germany ref1, ref2 Japan ref1 United States ref1 Foot, Michael ref1 Foreign Ministers’ Conference (Moscow) (1945) ref1 Forrestal, James ref1 Fragebogen ref1, ref2 France ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4 anti-Americanism ref1 black market ref1 communism in ref1 food rationing ref1 loan from United States ref1 Nazi-occupied ref1 occupation zone in Germany ref1 post-war conditions ref1 revenge taken out on collaborators (savage purge) ref1 French Communist Party ref1 Frick, Wilhelm ref1 Frings, Joseph ref1 Fuchs, Klaus ref1 Fuhrman, Johan ref1 Galbraith, J.

Arriving Today: From Factory to Front Door -- Why Everything Has Changed About How and What We Buy
by Christopher Mims
Published 13 Sep 2021

An Impossibly Perfect Map,” Wall Street Journal, October 11, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-key-to-autonomous-driving-an-impossibly-perfect-map-1539259260. launched in New Mexico in 1932: “Dr. Robert H. Goddard, American Rocketry Pioneer,” NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, February 11, 2015, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/about/history/dr_goddard.html. Operation Paperclip: Annie Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2015). getting humans to the moon: “The Inertial Measurement Unit: Mechanical Engineering Wizardry,” Hack the Moon, https://wehackthemoon.com/tech/inertial-measurement-unit-mechanical-engineering-wizardry.

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His ideas were elaborated by Wernher von Braun, whose V-2 rocket production program in Nazi Germany worked to death more than 10,000 slave laborers but did not, in the eyes of the U.S. government, outweigh his potential utility to America in winning various Cold War races against the Soviets. (At the close of World War II, Braun was shipped to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip and would prove instrumental in helping capitalists beat communists to the moon.) On the V-2 rocket, Braun gave the world its first real inertial navigation system, as it was then known. One of the “vengeance weapons” that Hitler thought would be so devastating and terrifying that it would force the Allies to call off their attack and press for peace, the V-2 was primitive by today’s standards but effective.

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See also Bezosism; scientific management Mao Zedong, 278 Marcus, Gary, 142 Marine Exchange of Southern California, 48, 50 Marketplace (Amazon business), 236 Marx, Karl, 87 Marzougui, Hedi, 28 Mason, George, 264 mass production, development of, 99–101, 214, 215 McAdam, John London, and macadam roadbuilding, 129 McDonald’s, 123, 205, 220 McKaye, Benton, 130 McLean, Malcolm, 14 McNamara, Robert, 222 Mechanization and Modernization Agreement, 71 Melville, Herman, 30 MEMS (microelectromechanical systems), 145 Mendez, Marc, 68, 78 Microsoft, 204 “the middle mile,” 251–62; Amazon warehouses, delivery of goods from, 170, 184, 188, 195; defined and described, 251–53; delivery service companies involved in, 252; delivery stations, 261–62; sortation centers for, 252–61 Midvale Steel Works, 96 Mississippi River, freight carriage on, 128 Mitsubishi Electric, 95 mobile shelving units, 172, 174, 175, 179, 181, 183, 185–86, 201, 214, 215, 227, 231 monkey’s fist knot, 64–65 monopsony, 137 Moore’s law, 145, 153 Moravee, Hans, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence, 178 Moravee’s paradox, 178–79, 243 Morreale, Austin, 197–98, 200, 208, 209–10 Motor Carrier Act (1980), 110 Motorola, 164, 228, 286 Mountz, Mick: Amazon warehouses and, 164–66, 168–69, 173, 174; Bezosism and management systems, 201, 211–14, 228; robotic warehousing and, 178, 182, 183, 191 MSC (shipping company), 22, 70 MSC Industrial Supply, 241–45, 248–49 MSDs (musculoskeletal disorders), 237, 238 muda, 226 Mujin (robotics company), 246 Municipal Warehouse No. 1, Port of Los Angeles, 46 Muro, Marc, 76 Murray, Matt, 209 Musk, Elon, 79, 155 MWPVL International, 201 N95 masks, 8, 10 NASA, 144, 248 natural gas supply chain, 91–92 navigating shipping vessels, 37–43 Nazi-era German technology, 131, 143–44 NBC News, 276 Nelson, Daniel, 98, 102 Neopanamax vessels, 27 Netherlands (container ship), 48–50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 60–62 New York and New Jersey, Port of, 48, 55, 61 New York Herald, 129 New York Herald Tribune, 104 New York Times, 112, 114, 276 NEXT Trucking, 74 Nieves, Erik, 244, 247, 249 NIKE system at Amazon, 174–75 Nvidia, 153, 154 Oakland, CA, port of, 52 Obama, Barack, 279 Ocado, 186 OfficeMax, 168 oil crisis of 1970s, 9 Omar, Nimo, 171 Onetto, Marc, 221–26, 228, 229–30, 232, 248 OOCL, 22, 26, 29, 36 OOIDA (Owner-Operator Independent Drivers Association), 111 Operation Paperclip, 144 ORION (On-Road Integrated Optimization and Navigation) system, 283–84 Osaro, 246 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration), 233, 240, 279 Pacific Maritime Association, 71 Pacific Ocean. navigating, 40–43 Pacino, Al, 277 Paltrow, Gwyneth, 184 Panama, as flag state, 32 Panama Canal, 26–27, 38 Panttila, John “JP,” 148–49 parallelization, 154 Pennsylvania Turnpike, 132 PepsiCo, 136 physical demands: on Amazon workers, 171–76, 197–98, 200, 202, 235–37; on delivery drivers, 272–73 “pick” (extraction of items from storage) at Amazon warehouses, 184–88, 202 pick towers, 160 Pickle (robotics company), 246 Piggly Wiggly, 167 pilot card, 57 Plus One Robotics, 243–46 pods, at Amazon, 175 Portable Pilot Unit, 59 Porter, Brad, 175, 181, 183, 227, 239 Portland, OR, port of, 52 ports.

The End of Astronauts: Why Robots Are the Future of Exploration
by Donald Goldsmith and Martin Rees
Published 18 Apr 2022

After World War II, the most prominent Nazi rocketeers surrendered to the Allies, hoping—quite correctly, in the event—that the Americans in particular would judge them so useful that their wartime activities would be overlooked. Under interrogation, von Braun cited as their inspiration not only the Nazis’ own rocket man, Hermann Oberth, but also Robert Goddard, saying, “Don’t you know about your own rocket pioneer? Dr. Goddard was ahead of us all.”3 Brought to America by Operation Paperclip, which resettled about 1,600 Nazi scientists and engineers in the United States, von Braun helped to launch the remaining V-2 rockets for scientific purposes, and in 1950 he became the leader of a rocket team at the US Army’s Redstone Arsenal in Alabama that developed new rockets with liquid-fueled engines for military use.

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See coronal mass ejections colonies, 88; on Mars, 39, 75, 86, 88–92, 104; on moon, 39, 50, 55, 57, 72, 75, 88, 97; in space, 39, 90, 91, 104–113 Columbia, 31, 121 Comet Cheryumov-Gerasimov, 126 Commercial Lunar Payload Services, 67 Concorde, 14 Consensys, 101 contamination, 77, 88 coronal mass ejections, 43, 44, 84 cosmic rays, 43, 44, 84 COSPAR, 71 Crawford, Ian, 64 Cruz, Ted, 99 CSPAN, 20 Cupola observatory, 126 Curiosity rover, 18, 78, 79, 82, 116 Daniels, Mitch, 21, 149, 150 Dawn spacecraft, 149 Deimos, 27 deuterium, 59 dinosaurs, 95, 103 DNA, 68, 70, 73, 87, 88 Dragon, 37, 38, 120, 128 Dragonfly, 79 Dula, Art, 139, 140 Durante, Marco, 84 Eliot, T.S., 144 Enceladus, 24, 148, 149 escape velocity, 27, 28, 30 Europa, 24, 148, 149 European Space Agency (ESA), 5, 24, 32, 37, 51, 65, 81, 89, 121, 125–128, 149 Executive Order 13914, 141, 142 exploration, motivations, 2, 14, 88 Falcon, 34, 38, 120, 122 Flammarion, Camille, 57, 75 Franklin probe, 127 Gagarin, Yuri, 4, 33 gamma rays, 44 Gemini, 32 geostationary orbits, 25, 28 Glenn, John, 4 Goddard, Robert, 2, 3 Goddard Space Flight Center, 2 gold, 98, 99, 101–103 gravitational force, 29, 41, 60, 78, 94, 99 gravitational well, 26–29, 56, 94, 99, 102, 121 greenhouse effect, 92 Grunsfeld, John, 91, 92 habitats, 6, 23–25, 32, 35, 39; on Mars, 39, 75, 85, 86, 89, 92; on moon, 50, 55, 57, 72, 75, 97; in space, 32, 35, 105–109, 111 Hawking, Stephen, 108, 148 Hayabusa, 96 helium-3, 59–61; helium-4, 59–61 high-energy particles, 1, 28, 43, 44, 57, 60, 61, 69, 106 Hoffman, Jeffrey, 82 Hope spacecraft, 78 Hubble Space Telescope, 1, 17, 41, 82, 126 ice: on asteroids, 97; on Enceladus, 149; on Europa, 149; on Mars, 86, 92; on moon, 52, 55–57 India, 7, 37, 52, 55, 57, 129 Infrared Space Telescope, 126 Ingenuity, 78, 79 InSight, 78 Institute for Defense Analyses, 118 International Aeronautical Congress, 108 International Court of Justice, 135, 137 International Lunar Research Station, 65 International Seabed Authority, 133 International Space Station, 30–38, 42, 82, 84, 101, 117, 122–128 interstellar travel, 113 Italian Space Agency, 121 Itokawa, 96 Japanese Space Agency, 5, 37, 96, 121, 129, 130 JAXA, 5 Jezero crater, 79, 87 John, Elton, 93 Johnson, Lyndon, 45 JUICE mission, 89 Juno, 24 Jurvetson, Steve, 39 Kelly, Scott, 33 Kennedy, John, 4, 10, 13, 119 Kepler, Johannes, 49 Kessler, David, 47 Kessler effect, 47, 48 Kimball, Dan, 124 Korolev, Sergei, 4 Lagrange points, 108; L4 and L5, 25, 144 Law of the Sea Convention, 133 laws in space, 131–133, 136–139, 143 LCROSS, 55 Leary, Timothy, 106 Lederberg, Joshua, 71 Leonov, Alexei, 4 Levania, 49 Levinthal, Elliott, 71 Lewis, John, 110 low-Earth orbit (LEO), 6, 25, 28, 29, 31–37, 41–48, 84, 101, 103, 120–122, 125, 126, 129, 151 Lowell, Percival, 75, 76 Luna program, 51, 52 Lunar and Planetary Institute, 17 Lunar Prospector, 51 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, 51 lunar rover, 62, 63, 129 Mangalyaan, 129 manufacturing in space, 35–37, 58 Mars, atmosphere, 78, 79, 86, 90; colonization, 88, 91, 104; humans on, 15, 81–85, 87–93; ice on, 86, 92; robots on, 17, 77, 82, 88, 116, 118, 127, 147, 149; water on, 75, 76, 86, 90, 93, 149 Marshall Space Flight Center, 37 Mars One, 117, 118 Martian, The, 86, 116 McAuliffe, Christa, 32 McKay, Chris, 83 McPhee, John, 77 Melroy, Pamela, 125 Mercury, 5, 74 Meteorites, 53, 80, 97 MeV, 44 microwaves, 46 mining: on asteroids, 23, 99–103, 107; on moon, 57, 61, 63, 110 Mir, 40 moon: colonies on, 39, 50, 55, 57, 72, 75, 88, 97; formation of, 50, 53; habitats on, 50, 55, 57, 72, 75, 97; humans on, 4, 12, 20, 51, 54–66; mining on, 57, 61, 63, 110; peaks of eternal light, 57, 147; robots on, 51–53, 59, 61–67 Moon Treaty, 137–140 Morton, Oliver, 13 Mount Everest, 12 Musk, Elon, 34, 38, 90, 99, 108, 120, 131, 148 Mutations, 44 National Academy of Sciences, 21, 150 National Aeronautics and Space: Administration (NASA), 2, 5, 15, 18–24, 31–39; limiting astronaut risks, 44, 47, 68; missions to Mars, 79–81, 85; to moon, 51, 52, 55, 65–68 Near-Earth orbit (NEO). See low-Earth orbit Nelson, Bill, 31, 107, 121 Nereus, 98–100 neutrino, 59 neutron, 59, 60 Newton, Isaac, 49 Newton’s laws, 27 Niven, Larry, 103 Oberth, Hermann, 3 O. Henry, 40 Olympus Mons, 92 O’Neill, Gerard, 106–109, 111 Operation Paperclip, 3 Opportunity, 84, 114, 116 orange soil, 54 orbits, around Earth, 1–6, 15, 18, 23–25, 28–35, 37, 40–45, 50; geostationary, 25, 28; around Mars, 17, 37, 76–78, 81, 84, 86, 116; around moon, 51–53, 55, 59, 66, 67; around other stars, 73; overcrowding of, 45–48; around sun, 18, 26, 94–97, 100–103, 105, 108, 113 Orion spacecraft, 119 OSIRIS-Rex, 96, 97 Outer Space Treaty, 66, 71, 136–138, 140 Pantheon, 30 Peaks of Eternal Light, 57, 147 Peijian, Yi, 124, 126 Perseverance rover, 13, 18, 62, 78–81, 87, 116 Phobos, 27 Planetary Resources Corporation, 101 Plate tectonics, 56 polls, 19–21, 24 Polyakov, Valery, 33 Polynesians, 12 Psyche, 100 public attitudes toward space exploration, 2–4, 6, 8–13, 16–21, 30, 32, 76, 83, 92, 94, 102, 104, 106, 128, 147 Purdue University, 21 Quegiao, 125 radiation damage, 29, 43–46, 60, 69, 70, 84, 85, 118 Redstone Arsenal, 3 regolith, 61, 96, 143 robots, comparison with humans, 64, 65, 115, 146, 149; on Mars, 79, 81–83, 86, 93, 94, 102; on moon, 51–53, 59, 61–67; for space manufacturing, 6, 35–37 Roscosmos, 129 Ryumin, Valery, 40 Sagan, Carl, 71, 72 sample return, from asteroids, 24, 96, 97; from Mars, 14, 77, 80, 81, 127, 128, 147; from moon, 52–54, 56, 63, 125, 128, 139 Schmitt, Harrison, 54, 59, 61, 62 Schwartz, James, 11 Shackleton crater, 57, 129 Shorty crater, 54 Simonyi, Charles, 101 SKA (Square Kilometer Array), 59 SLS, 119, 120 Smart-1, 51 Smith, O.

Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Apollo Moon Landings
by Jay Barbree , Howard Benedict , Alan Shepard , Deke Slayton and Neil Armstrong
Published 1 Jan 1994

Arriving in Huntsville, they were confident they could exceed their past performance. Nobody questioned his or her expertise. The American military was without any missile skills and considered these Germans to be the most valuable booty from the defeated Third Reich. They had been recruited through Operation Paperclip, a secret U.S. Army program created to scour Germany for rocket, atomic, and aircraft specialists who could be brought to America and kept together as a team. The lead German scientist was Dr. Wernher von Braun, a brilliant propulsion engineer with a dynamic, commanding presence. He was a visionary who from his youth had dreamed of developing rockets to explore outer space.

…

Navy Navy Test Pilot School, Patuxent River Naval Air Base, 43-44 NBC News, 24, 27, 52, 103, 110 Nellis Air Force Base, 197 Nelson, Bill, 363 New York Times, 222 Nixon, Richard M., 14, 86, 207, 280, 335, 336, 352, 362, 376 North American Aviation, 164, 177, 181, 189, 194, 202 North American Rockwell, 280 North Korea, 19 North Ray Crater, Moon, 334-35 N-1 rocket, 213, 224-25, 339-40 O Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies, 195 Obama, Barack, 362-63 Ocean of Storms, Moon, 259, 260, 300, 309 Odyssey (Apollo 13 command module), 265, 269, 270, 275, 276, 277 Office of Naval Research, 20 O’Hara, Dee, 129 O’Malley, Tom (T.J.), 132, 133 Operation Paperclip, 17 orbital flights, first. See Friendship Seven; Vostok I Orbiter project. See Friendship Seven Orion (Apollo 16 lunar module), 334-35 oxygen pressurization, 179, 181, 183-87, 377 P Paine, Thomas O., 207, 216-17, 335-36 Patrick Air Force Base, 128 Patsayev, Viktor, 333 Patuxent River Naval Air Base, 28, 43-44 Pentagon, 20, 21, 33 Petrone, Rocco, 182, 183, 185, 189-90, 206-7 Phillips, Maj.

…

Air Force: Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU), 172-74 astronauts, 50-51, 65, 122-23 facilities, 152-53, 155 lighthouse “launch” film, 69 missile development programs, 19, 132, 195 rescue planes, 172 review of Slayton’s health status, 141-42 U.S. Army: campaign to launch a U.S. satellite, 17, 21, 26-27, 31-33 communications satellite system, 123 Operation Paperclip, 17 rocketry program, 16-17, 18-19, 19-20, 27, 123 U.S. Congress in 2010, 362-63 Kennedy’s address to, 121 and Mercury program, 57, 58 NASA funding, 18, 124, 130, 153-54, 286, 341-42 opposition to space program, 18, 340-41 Spacecraft Center site selection, 152-53, 153-55 U.S. “firsts” in space docking in orbit, 183-84 manned lunar landing and return. see Apollo 11 manned lunar orbit. see Apollo 8 manual control of spacecraft, 106-7 U.S.

Rise of the Rocket Girls: The Women Who Propelled Us, From Missiles to the Moon to Mars
by Nathalia Holt
Published 4 Apr 2016

Like Frank Malina, JPL’s acting director, he’d received his PhD at Caltech, and almost immediately was attracted to the Suicide Squad. Though he was a quiet man, something about the audacious group drew him in. He’d been involved with JPL since its inception, playing a key role in its success before serving in the U.S. Army. It was in the army, while serving as an honorary colonel, that Tsien consulted for Operation Paperclip, which aimed to capture key Nazi scientists after the war before Russia could get hold of them. The United States was desperate to get their hands on Nazi rocket technology, whose sophistication far outstripped that of the Allies’. Tsien, an accomplished, well-respected rocket scientist, was a natural choice to interview the enemy scientists.

…

Originally a chemical weapons–manufacturing facility, producing such toxic products as mustard gas, the Redstone army post in Huntsville, Alabama, became home to von Braun and 126 other German scientists in 1950. They were sent there from Fort Bliss, Texas, the former base of operations for Operation Paperclip, the program that brought Nazi scientists to the United States after the war. Nestled in the Tennessee Valley, the lab was fertile soil for rocket research. By 1956, von Braun’s contributions were appreciated, and he was made director of the development operations program at the new Army Ballistic Missile Agency at Redstone.

Merchants of the Right: Gun Sellers and the Crisis of American Democracy
by Jennifer Carlson
Published 2 May 2023

Themselves motivated by conspiracy theories fueled by bigotry, these initiatives in turn gave rise to their own conspiracy theories among the marginalized peoples that these campaigns targeted10—attempts by everyday people to make sense of the systematic disadvantage they experience—and many of those conspiracy theories have turned out nothing short of true, including the Watergate scandal, the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis, Operation Paperclip, Project Mkultra, and more. Conspiracism has thus long crossed ideological divides and appealed across demographic categories in the United States. Yet, there is a predilection for conspiracism that characterizes contemporary American conservativism. For decades, conservative and right-leaning Americans have been more likely to distrust scientific elites11 and the mainstream media;12 one recent Pew survey found that 52 percent of Republican-identified respondents had “not too much” or “no confidence at all” in “college professors to act in the public interest” (in contrast, 83 percent of Democrat-identified respondents had a fair amount or great amount of confidence).13 Leading up to 2020, nearly two-thirds of all Americans reported that they found it “very hard” or “somewhat hard” to distinguish fact from fiction when listening to elected officials and 61 percent believed that mass media ignores important issues, but Republicans were more worried than their Democrat counterparts about bias in news media, especially one-sided coverage involving Trump.14 If conspiracism emerges at the intersection of “declining public trust in institutions and a legitimacy crisis around expert knowledge,”15 then contemporary conservatives seemed primed for conspiracist thinking as 2020 began to unfold.

…

See also fake news Metzl, Jonathan, 138 Michigan, 45 Mill, John Stuart, 130 Mills, Charles Wright, 24, 104, 130 Milner, Ryan, 78 Muirhead, Russell, 72, 84 Mulford Act (California), 10 Müller, Jan-Werner, 162 National African American Gun Association (NAAGA), 56–57 National Rifle Association (NRA): CDC as target of, 134; and conspiracism, 71–72; evangelical Christianity linked to, 204n38; and gun rights, 10–12, 16, 163–64; hard-line faction of, 11–12; messaging of, 11–12, 41–42, 49, 134, 162–63, 210n18, 217n41; organizational problems of, 164; political engagement of, 7, 9–12, 103, 162–63; Republican Party linked to, 15, 103, 162; sportsmen faction of, 11 National Shooting Sports Foundation (NSSF), 56–57, 67, 116 Nazi Germany, 85, 125, 148, 211n19, 218n51, 224n72, 228n35 neoliberalism, 36–37 new conspiracism, 84 Newsom, Gavin, 46 New York Times (newspaper), 5, 75, 77, 105, 131 New York Times Magazine, 89 NRA. See National Rifle Association NSSF. See National Shooting Sports Foundation Nugent, Ted, 74, 75 Obama, Barack, 14, 77, 83, 109, 111, 147, 150, 155, 170, 213n35 Obama, Michelle, 109, 147 Obert, Jonathan, 36 Operation Paperclip, 71 opportunism. See political opportunism Palin, Sarah, 58 paranoid style, 75 partisanship, 100–129; and 2020 presidential election, 101; and BLM, 100–101; as characteristic of democracy, 103–4; conservativism linked to, 104–5; coronavirus attitudes linked to, 74–75, 100, 123–24; corrosive effects of, 103–4, 110–11; dehumanization as tactic of, 8, 34, 105, 107–10, 127; divided America and, 48, 101, 129, 222n31; in everyday life, 105–6, 128; extension and perpetuation of, 106–7; geographical character of, 106; gun ownership associated with, 101, 120–21, 162; gun politics and, 103; gun sellers and, 104, 113–15, 119–22, 128–29, 146; impact of, 100–101, 104–7; individualism linked to, 99; January 6th riot as expression of, 6; masculinity associated with, 223n45; overview of, 100–101; public concern about, 107; and race, 109; Republican Party and, 105; role of, in conservative worldview, 2–3, 8, 25; threat to democracy from, 8, 25, 34; truth/knowledge linked to, 122–27 Peck, Reece, 78, 79, 98, 122 Pelosi, Nancy, 64, 125 people.

Shoot for the Moon: The Space Race and the Extraordinary Voyage of Apollo 11
by James Donovan
Published 12 Mar 2019

They also located the mine shaft where von Braun had hidden the program’s most important plans and blueprints—fourteen tons of crates—and at the last minute they found another cache of valuable V-2 documents that Dornberger had hidden himself. The final treasures were shipped out just two days before the June 1 handover of the area to the Soviets. A few weeks later, the transfer of von Braun and a hundred and twenty-six of his top rocketeers to the United States was officially approved as part of Operation Paperclip, a quickly planned and executed evacuation of thousands of German scientists, engineers, and technicians. They were soon granted security clearances and began arriving in September as “wards of the Army,” requiring no entry permits—but first they were provided with false employment histories, and their Nazi Party affiliations were expunged from their records.

…

(Author’s collection) Von Braun (center, with cast) surrendered to the U.S. Army on May 2, 1945. At left is Charles Stewart, CIC agent; Magnus von Braun is at right in leather jacket. The others are members of von Braun’s rocket team. When von Braun and his rocketeers were brought into the U.S. as part of Operation Paperclip (above, with von Braun in the first row, seventh from the right), they spent years assembling and launching V-2s, built from parts shipped from Germany, and improving their rocket expertise. The Redstone and Jupiter missiles were essentially larger V-2s with extra stages. On January 31, 1958, von Braun’s Redstone launched the first American satellite, Explorer 1.

Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.-Soviet Submarine War
by W. Craig Reed
Published 3 May 2010

The Soviets built nineteen more sites throughout the 1950s, with many installed in pairs within a few miles of one another for navigation purposes. Four Krugs were installed near Moscow, and some were used to track Sputnik satellites via 10 and 20 MHz beacons. Although the Allies snatched up their own Wullenweber engineers after the war under Operation Paperclip, they were slow to the game. Antenna researcher Dr. Rolf Wundt, along with his wife and parents, arrived in New York City on the same ship as Wernher von Braun in March 1947, but he did not work on this technology until many years later. The Air Force, and later GT&E Sylvania Electronics Systems, made some progress on Wullenweber antenna technology, but more than a decade passed before the first site became operational.

…

Edward, 216 Moorman, Dave, 323 Mueser, Roland, 16–19 Multiangulation, 28, 30, 45, 49, 138 Mumma, Albert G., 351n Murray, USS, 150 Mystic, 229–30 Naftali, Timothy, 157 Napier, Russ, 159 National Photographic Interpretation Center, 86–87 National Press Club, 157 National Security Council (NSC), 118 National Security Operations Center (NSOC), 62 Naumov, Sergei, 75, 85, 97, 108–9, 113, 166 Nautilus, USS, 8–10, 13–14, 15, 20–21, 62–63, 180, 193, 231, 351n Naval Electronics Laboratory, 185 Naval Reactors Branch, 9–10 Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), 40–45, 50, 145, 147, 191, 253 Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC), 11 Naval Scientific and Technical Intelligence Center (NAVSTIC), 20 Naval Security Group (NSG), 22, 146, 232 Navy Expeditionary Medal, 9, 338 Navy SEALs, 234, 296–99, 338–39, 340 Nea Makri Station, 212–13 Nelson, Elroy, 163, 168 Net Control (NC), 29–30 New York Herald Tribune, 157 New York Times, 227 New York Yankees, 100 Nicholson, Jack, 264 Niebuhr, Reinhold, 318 Nissho Maru, 316–17 Nitrogen narcosis, 229 Nitze, Paul, 216 Nixon, Richard, 80, 217, 225, 352n Noisemaker torpedoes, 163, 164 Norfolk Naval Communications Area Master Station, 199–200 North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), 191 North Korea, and USS Pueblo, 200–205 North Pole, 15, 193 Novaya Zemlya, 62–63, 139, 231 November–class subs, 188, 193 Nuclear Non–Proliferation Treaty, 277 Nuclear–powered submarines, 8–10, 13, 14, 20–21, 180 Odell, Carl, 81–82, 141–45 Office of Collection and Signals Analysis, 40–44 Office of Undersea Warfare, 215 “Off–line,” 255 Ohio, USS, 340 Okinawa Bulls Eye, 48–49 Oliver, Michael, 295–96, 302, 307–16 Omnidirectional sound viewpoint, 142, 253–54 One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (movie), 264 One Hell of a Gamble (Fursenko and Naftali), 157 Onslow Beach, North Carolina, 176 OP–20–G (Office of Chief of Naval Operations), 45 Operational Reactor Safeguard Exam (ORSE), 304 Operation Anadyr, 58–61. See also Operation Kama Operation Eagle Claw, 319 Operation Falling Leaves, 118 Operation ICEX, 254 Operation Kama, 57–77, 82–86, 88–100, 107–15, 118–21, 130–34, 148, 149–55, 157–78. See also B-4; B-36; B-59; B-130 Operation Paperclip, 46 Operation Sand Dollar, 216 Operations specialists (O-Branchers), 29 Orel, Vice Admiral, 66 Orestes, 200 Orlov, Pavel, 150–55 Ortolan, USS, 237 Orwell, George, 332 OSNAZ, 77, 94, 121, 133 Oxford, USS, 61–62, 63, 86, 101, 106 Packard, David, 221 Palm Beach International Airport, 115 Pancho Villa, 265 Pankov, Lieutenant avoiding detection, 108–15, 161, 170–71 operation onboard, 82–84, 90–91 Parangosky, John, 217, 220–23 Parche, USS, 289–93 cable–tapping missions, 248–49, 288, 291–93, 319–22, 333–34, 338, 372–74n Parshin, Viktor, 131–33 Pasha (cat), 72–73 Passive sonar systems, 16–21, 272–73 Patton, George, 188 PCS–1380, 139–40 Pearlman, Stanley, 357n Pearson, J.

The Devil's Chessboard: Allen Dulles, the CIA, and the Rise of America's Secret Government
by David Talbot
Published 5 Sep 2016

Silver, “Questions, Question, Questions: Memories of Oberursel,” Intelligence and National Security 8, no. 2 (April 1993): 81–90. 291the camp was operating as an extreme interrogation center: Annie Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 2014), 317–21. 292Beecher even began drawing on the work done by Nazi doctors: Alfred McCoy, Torture and Impunity: The U.S. Doctrine of Coercive Interrogation (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012), 75–80. 293“I never gave a thought to legality”: John Marks, The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 49. 293“He had a tough time”: Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip, 367. 294Olson was suffering a “moral crisis”: Family Statement on the Murder of Frank Olson, Aug. 8, 2002, http://www.frankolsonproject.org/Statements/Family Statement2002.html. 294“fear of a security violation”: Ibid. 295dosed with acid for seventy-seven straight days: Marks, Search for the Manchurian Candidate, 67. 295“We were in a World War II mode”: Sidney Gottlieb obituary, New York Times, March 10, 1999. 295“Well, he’s gone”: H.

…

At Camp King, CIA scientists and their German colleagues subjected victims to dangerous combinations of drugs—including Benzedrine, Pentothal-Natrium, LSD, and mescaline—under a research protocol that stipulated, “Disposal of the body is not a problem.” More than sixteen hundred of the Nazi scientists recruited for U.S. research projects like this would be comfortably resettled with their families in America under a CIA program known as Operation Paperclip. One of the CIA-sponsored researchers who worked on the Artichoke interrogations in Germany, a Harvard-trained physician named Henry Knowles Beecher, was brought to Camp King by the agency to advise on the best way to induce amnesia in Soviet spies after they had been subjected to the agency’s interrogation methods.

12 Bytes: How We Got Here. Where We Might Go Next
by Jeanette Winterson
Published 15 Mar 2021

V-2 might sound techy and sci-fi – in reality it was shorthand for Vergeltungswaffe 2, which means ‘vengeance weapon’, and it was personally ordered by Hitler to be used against Britain. The V-2 was built by concentration-camp prisoners in conditions so foul that more were killed making the rockets than were killed by V-2 blasts. The USA rehabilitated von Braun, and many other prominent Nazi scientists, in President Truman’s Operation Paperclip. The programme was designed to give the USA an edge against the Soviets. As early as 1952, von Braun began working for the USA on the Mars Project. At the same time, he became a technical director for Disney Studios, reporting directly to Walt himself. Transferred to the just-created NASA in 1958, von Braun gave up Mars for the moon.

A Fiery Peace in a Cold War: Bernard Schriever and the Ultimate Weapon
by Neil Sheehan
Published 21 Sep 2009

Mettler was fortunate to have someone experienced in rocketry to serve as his deputy—a forty-year-old Austro-German aeronautical engineer named Adolf Thiel, another veteran of the V-2 program and a refugee from the Redstone Arsenal. Although “Dolf” Thiel had come to the United States in 1946 with the original group of German rocketeers under the clandestine Operation Paperclip, he had never been part of the von Braun coterie. A slender man of medium height, with a prominent nose and thinning brown hair, Thiel had a friendly if intense manner that hid a quick temper. He had been born in Vienna and grew up there, but went to Darmstadt, just south of Frankfurt, for his higher education, because Darmstadt’s university offered courses in aeronautical engineering.

…

That month, just twenty-four hours before the Soviets were due to move into the Nordhausen area as part of their occupation zone, the five trunks filled with Dornberger’s plans and research were retrieved from the abandoned salt mine and sent off to Antwerp. Toftoy then instigated a clandestine project code-named Operation Paperclip. He and his team drafted a cable to Washington, which General Eisenhower signed, recommending that “100 of the very best men of this research organization be evacuated to US immediately.” Cordell Hull, the secretary of state, whose consent was necessary under the law, approved. The number grew to 127 rocket specialists when Toftoy and von Braun selected those who were to come.

Challenger: A True Story of Heroism and Disaster on the Edge of Space
by Adam Higginbotham
Published 14 May 2024

As the Third Reich staggered toward annihilation in the closing months of the war, those German engineers whose ingenuity had come to deadly fruition with the V-2 rocket bomb—which killed thousands of civilians in England and Belgium—began looking to barter their knowledge for lenient treatment at the hands of the Allies. Among them were Wernher von Braun, who would become the architect of the Saturn V moon rocket program—and his boss, Major General Walter Dornberger. After the war, both von Braun and Dornberger were among the 120 German rocket engineers brought to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip, a secret US government scheme to exploit the Nazis’ scientific expertise in the emerging confrontation with the Soviet Union. Dornberger once complained that Germany had been defeated because his subordinates on the V-2 program were “more interested in the possibilities of space travel than with victory in war,” but now the vanquished major general found a new life among his former foes, in Buffalo, New York.

…

W., 237, 260, 298, 305–6, 366, 370, 371 Butterworth, Bill, 209–11, 225–27 Butterworth, Jenny, 225 Cain, LeRoy, 448 CapCom (Capsule Communicator), 94, 116, 130, 138, 139, 151, 346, 352, 443 Cape Canaveral, 16, 53, 54, 155, 156, 189, 203, 211, 231–34, 243, 256, 257, 273, 284, 295, 299, 340, 347, 379, 390, 404, 426, 444 Astronaut Candidates at, 108 Challenger and, 143, 183–84, 227 STS-51-L mission, 238, 293, 294, 295, 304, 307, 308, 310, 323, 325, 330, 331, 340, 356, 360, 367 Columbia and, 113, 116, 118, 119, 127–30, 173 Launch Control Center at, 16, 129, 130, 183, 198, 200, 236, 289, 290, 292, 294 Challenger STS-51-L and, 299, 303, 304, 307, 308–10, 335, 337, 338, 341, 343, 344, 346–47, 350, 354, 356, 361, 363, 364 Nelson and, 276 solid rocket booster assembly at, 159, 162, 163, 166, 168–72 Vehicle Assembly Building at, 123, 159, 169, 170, 172, 247, 270, 286, 305, 306, 347, 399 weather at, 247, 303, 305, 307, 310–13 see also Kennedy Space Center Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation, 238 Carson, Johnny, 216–17, 243 Carter, Jimmy, 78, 94, 100–102, 119–21, 123, 124, 128 Iran hostage crisis and, 121, 128 Carter, Sonny, 340, 362, 427, 437, 439 CBS, 4, 28, 31–32, 317, 360 CBS Evening News, 13 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 44, 59 Cernan, Gene, 23, 27–28, 31–32, 66, 76, 229, 237 Cernan, Teresa Dawn, 28 Chaffee, Martha, 7, 8, 15–16, 22, 23 Chaffee, Roger, 7–8, 15–16 on Apollo 1 mission, 7–13, 15–21 death in, 7, 20–21, 22–27, 29, 30, 60, 94, 369, 377, 426 burial of, 23 Chaffee, Sheryl, 23 Chaffee, Stephen, 23 Chaikin, Andrew, 190 Challenger Center for Space Science Education, 443 Church of Latter Day Saints, 160, 247 CIA, 44, 59 Citizens in Space Task Force, 217–19 civil rights movement, 29, 30, 71, 74 Clear Lake, 63, 91, 94, 102, 111, 112, 115, 135, 145, 146, 148, 150, 215, 244, 274, 280, 370–71, 374, 379 Clear Lake High School, 145 Cleveland Call and Post, 74 clevis-and-tang joints, 163, 164, 166, 167, 170, 255, 381, 392 Clifford, Sophia, 230 Clinton, Bill, 456 CNN, 2, 343, 348, 352, 355, 360, 366, 385 Coast Guard, 400–402, 425 Cobb, Geraldyn “Jerrie,” 67–69, 71 Coca-Cola, 238 Cochran, Jacqueline, 67, 69 Cold War, 29, 32, 41, 43–44, 160, 231–32, 444 cold weather, 321 Challenger STS-51-L launch and, 337, 367, 368, 385, 386, 388, 389 booster rocket temperature, 337–38, 345 launchpad ice, 311, 325, 333–34, 337–41, 343, 345, 349 O-rings and, 253–57, 259, 262, 392, 393 Challenger STS-51-L disaster and, 349–51, 381, 384 Challenger STS-51-L launch concerns about, 297, 300–301, 303–7, 310–20, 321–32, 335–36, 430, 436 Discovery STS-51-C and, 247, 253–55, 303–4, 311, 313, 324, 329 Feynman’s ice water demonstration on, 393–94 Collins, Michael, 7, 22, 55, 90, 281–82 Collins, Pat, 281 Columbia Accident Investigation Board, 449 Concord High School, 223, 350 Concord Monitor, 221 Congress, 105, 115, 376, 380 Apollo program hearings of, 25–27 NASA budget cut by, 52, 53 Space Shuttle funding and, 57–58, 61 Congressional Committee on Science and Astronautics, 69 Constitution, US, 418 contingency abort, 155 Corlew, Johnny, 309, 310, 317, 339, 340 Corrigan, Ed and Grace, 222, 297, 299, 302, 342, 350, 354, 357, 358, 362, 375–76 Covey, Dick, 3, 103, 346 Crippen, Bob, 105, 116, 122, 123, 127, 129–39, 141, 151, 183, 236, 378, 399–402, 412, 420, 436, 444, 446 post-Challenger life of, 451 Crippen, Ginny, 225 Cronkite, Walter, 13, 219, 291 Culbertson, Frank, 286, 362 Cunningham, Stephen, 209–11 Daily Defender, 75 Dallas, 149 Dallas Morning News, 285 Dawber, Pam, 229 Defense Department, 44, 72 Discovery and, 244–45, 268 DeLorean, John, 282 Denver, John, 219 Devlin, Jim, 318–19 Devlin, John, 412–13, 418, 420 Dornberger, Walter, 40–42, 55 Dover Air Force Base, 428 Drake, Francis, 369–70 Dream Is Alive, The, 228 Dribin, Lee, 387 Dwight, Edward Joseph, 73–77 Dyna-Soar, 41–43, 60 Dyson, Freeman, 218 Easterbrook, Gregg, 122 Easter Island, 155 Ebeling, Bob, 272–73, 312–14, 347, 349, 350, 430, 432 post-Challenger life of, 451 Ebony, 83 Edwards Air Force Base, 47, 48, 50, 73, 74, 79, 80, 82, 184, 204, 376, 443 Columbia and, 138, 140, 142 Eglin Air Force Base, 401 Eisenhower, Dwight, 43 Elizabeth II, Queen, 23 Ellington Field, 93, 102, 145, 372, 375 Empire State Building, 374 Enterprise (originally Constitution), 62, 95–96 Equal Employment Opportunity Act, 65 Essence, 83 Ethiopia, 276–77 European Space Agency, 114, 232 F-1 engine, 159 Faget, Max, 11, 34–38, 42, 61, 156, 158 capsules designed by, 35–37, 43, 60 Columbia and, 130, 132, 134, 137, 138 family background and early life of, 35 Lee and, 56 in Space Shuttle design and development, 34, 37–38, 57, 60–62, 98, 130, 137, 447 Fairchild Industries, 158 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 248–49 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 282, 410, 434 Feynman, Richard, 391–92 cancer and death of, 391, 420, 449 engine presentation requested by, 421–22 on Rogers Commission, 382, 389, 391–94, 396, 408, 420–22, 433 Appendix F for, 433, 449–50 ice water demonstration in, 393–94 Fisher, Anna, 92, 93, 103, 117, 151, 213, 267 Fisher, Bill, 92 Fixed-Base Simulator, 109 Fixed Service Structure, 325 Fletcher, James, 32–33, 65, 95, 96, 431 Flight 981 crash, 249–50, 261 Flight Control Room, 1, 2, 137, 139, 140, 236, 345, 351, 371 Flight Dynamics Officer, 130–31, 139, 345–46, 351, 356 Flight Readiness Reviews, 175–79, 202–4, 207–8, 230, 251, 417 solid rocket boosters and, 178–79, 208, 254, 255, 257, 260 for Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51-L, 300–301, 303, 322–32, 393, 430 Florida Today, 212 Fonda, Jane, 231, 298 Ford, Gerald, 65, 78 Ford Foundation, 87 Fox, Michael J., 279 Frank, Richard, 101 Freedom of Information Act, 427 Freedom Star, 245, 319, 321 Frenchie’s, 280 Frosch, Robert, 100–101, 113, 115, 121, 123–24, 128, 218 Funk, Scott, 303 Fuqua, Don, 95, 298, 306 Gaddafi, Muammar, 374 Gagarin, Yuri, 9, 42–43, 71 Gallup poll, 55 Gardner, Dale, 151, 214, 215 Garn, Jake, 227, 298, 370 Garrison, Ed, 395 Gemini program, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 26, 33, 43, 46, 82, 104, 189, 281 unmanned tests in, 122 General Dynamics, 141, 282, 283 General Electric (GE), 14, 54, 168–69 Germany, 40–41, 158 Gibson, Robert “Hoot,” 148, 189, 190, 276, 284, 289 Gilruth, Robert, 37 Girl Scouts, 222, 224 Glenn, John, 9, 46, 70, 71, 76, 90, 147, 221, 243, 370 Graham, Bill, 283–84, 290, 291, 298, 301, 303, 304, 306, 360, 366–68, 370, 376, 380–82, 384–85, 387, 388, 391, 431 gravity, zero, 78, 110, 187, 275 Great Salt Lake, 160 Greene, Jay, 345–46, 351, 353, 355–56, 358 Gregory, Fred, 145, 152, 375, 415 Grissom, Betty, 436, 440 Grissom, Gus, 8 on Apollo 1 mission, 8–10, 12–21 death in, 20–21, 22–27, 29, 30, 60, 94, 369, 377, 426, 436 burial of, 23 Grissom, Mark, 10 Grumman Corporation, 52 Hall, Bruce, 317 Halley’s Comet, 277, 290, 293 Hardy, George, 159, 172, 173, 271, 315, 322, 323, 327, 330, 451 Harris, Hugh, 347, 349 Hart, Jane B., 68–69 Hartsfield, Henry “Hank,” 197–200, 416 Hauck, Rick, 108, 116, 148, 151, 212–15 Hawley, Steve, 148, 150 Heisig, Kurt, 185, 186, 191 Henize, Karl, 241–42 Hercules, Inc., 181 Hetzel Shoal, 411, 412, 415, 420 Hexagon, 59 “High Flight” (Magee), 281, 282, 366, 370 Hitler, Adolf, 40, 158 Hollings, Ernest, 434 Holz, Robert, 444 Homestead Air Force Base, 107 Houston, Cecil, 314–15, 321–22, 328, 331–32 Houston Chronicle, 112 Houston Post, 416 Howard, Jenny, 239–42, 261 Hubble Space Telescope, 290–91 Hughes Aircraft Company, 193–96, 209–11, 225–26, 275–76, 300, 337 Hughes Research Labs, 84, 88–89 Huntsville, AL, 53–54, 157, 159, 166, 171–73, 178, 179, 182, 208, 224, 272, 300, 378, 379, 381, 384, 387, 404, 417, 432 see also Marshall Space Flight Center Hurricane Alicia, 267 Husband, Rick, 446–48 Hutchinson, Neil, 130–32, 134 hydrogen, 96–98, 168, 333 hypersonic planes, 35, 42–46, 56, 81, 98 X-15, 45–46, 47–52, 101, 140 hypoxia, 236 Inconel X, 45 intercontinental ballistic missiles, 35–36, 41, 160 Titan, 41, 59, 161, 163, 164, 165, 204 International Space Station, 445, 449 Iran, 119, 121, 128 Jack and Jill of America, 146 Jarre, Jean-Michel, 278–79, 285, 452 Jarvis, Greg, 193–96, 209–11, 225–28, 275–77, 452 on Challenger mission, 277, 294, 295, 300, 302, 306, 316, 419 death in, 355, 368, 369, 373, 378, 384, 401, 437 experiments planned, 277, 285 on launch day, 337, 339, 340, 344 media junket for, 285 recovery of remains and burial, 419–20, 426–28, 435–36, 438 at Hughes, 193–96, 275–76, 300 Jarvis, Marcia, 194–96, 211, 225, 228, 294, 300, 302, 371, 420, 435, 441 post-Challenger life of, 452 Jet, 75, 83, 191 Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 392 Jetty Rats, 405, 414 John Paul II, Pope, 374 Johnson, Caldwell, 35 Johnson, Frank, 229–30 Johnson, Lyndon, 23, 24, 31, 52, 53, 68–69, 72, 141 Johnson Sea Link II, 403 Johnson Space Center (Manned Spacecraft Center), 53, 63, 101, 156, 211, 225, 226, 236, 242, 267, 268, 274, 278, 280, 284, 378 Apollo 1 fire and, 22 Columbia and, 115, 119, 128, 134, 135 Space Shuttle astronaut recruitment and, 78, 84, 91, 93, 103, 104, 111, 144–46, 148–50, 152, 154 Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51-L and, 301, 310, 331 memorial for astronauts lost in disaster, 376–77, 406 Space Shuttle development and, 34, 37, 56, 61 see also Mission Control Justice Department, 31 Kansas City Call, 73 Karman Line, 46, 132, 229 Keel, Alton, 398, 454 Kelly Air Force Base, 79 Kennedy, John F., 43, 160 assassination of, 76, 373 moon landing deadline of, 8, 9, 32, 52, 70 racial equality and, 71, 72, 74 Kennedy, Robert F., 29, 75 Kennedy Space Center, 174, 177, 209, 233, 254, 290, 394, 399, 416–17, 426 Challenger STS-51-L mission at, 295, 303, 304, 313, 321, 333, 335, 349, 361, 362, 370 Columbia missions at, 112, 113, 130, 291–93 construction of, 16–17 employee workloads at, 234 gift shop at, 299 solid rocket boosters and, 159 Kerwin, Joe, 426, 438–40 KH-11 Keyhole spy satellite, 136–37 Kilminster, Joe, 182, 320, 322, 324, 327–31, 395, 407, 432 King, Martin Luther, 29 Kingsbury, Jim, 317 Kitty Hawk, USS, 264 Kleinknecht, Kenny, 114–15, 119, 123 Knight, Pete, 48–50 Konrad, John, 209–11, 276 Kraft, Chris, 11, 64, 66, 83, 101, 115, 119, 130, 132, 137, 138, 151, 156, 212, 215, 226 Kranz, Gene, 64, 136–37 Krist, Ronald, 436, 441 Ku Klux Klan, 85, 147 Kutyna, Don, 382, 389, 394, 408, 409, 421, 433 Kuznetz, Larry, 112–15, 118, 123 Ladies’ Home Journal, 279 Lake City, SC, 84–85, 191–92 Langley Research Center, 35, 53, 154, 239 Launch Control Center, 16, 129, 130, 183, 198, 200, 236, 289, 290, 292, 294 Challenger STS-51-L and, 299, 303, 304, 307, 308–10, 335, 337, 338, 341, 343, 344, 346–47, 350, 354, 356, 361, 363, 364 Lawrence, Robert H., 77 Lee, Chester, 230 Lee, Dottie, 56, 60, 134–35, 137 LeMay, Curtis, 75 Liberty Star, 245, 318–19, 321 Life, 31, 46, 67, 291 Lincoln, Abraham, 376 Live Aid, 276 Lloyd’s of London, 214 Lockheed Corporation, 99–100, 114, 115, 233 Long, Linda, 304 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 54 Los Angeles Times, 79, 82 Love, Mike, 81 Lovelace, Randy, 66–68 Lovell, Jim, 266 Lovingood, Jud, 317, 322, 385–87 Lucas, Bill, 157–58, 176, 177, 179, 180, 291, 300, 317–18, 332, 335–36, 348, 386, 417–18, 432, 434 post-Challenger life of, 452–53 Lucid, Shannon, 93 Lucy, 411, 412, 424 Lund, Bob, 250–51, 261, 271–72, 313–15, 319, 320, 324, 326, 328–31, 394–96, 407, 408, 432, 451 Luz, 83 Magee, John Gillespie, Jr., 281–82, 366, 370 Magellan, Ferdinand, 38 Mailer, Norman, 218 Management Information Center (MIC), 246 Manned Maneuvering Unit, 110, 186, 188, 212, 213 Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL), 43–44, 48, 59, 77, 105, 114 Manned Spacecraft Center, see Johnson Space Center Maready, Bill, 307, 437 Maribelle’s, 111, 267 Mark, Hans, 206–7 Markey, Ed, 441–42 Mars, 29, 32, 54, 55, 157 Marshall Space Flight Center, 53, 62, 157, 202–3, 207, 240, 251, 260, 291, 417, 432 engine presentation for Feynman at, 421–22 Science and Engineering Directorate, 178-179 solid rocket booster project and O-ring concerns at, 143, 164, 166–68, 172, 173, 178–80, 182, 206, 253, 2525–56, 259, 262, 269, 271, 272, 311, 416, 423, 430 Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51-L and, 300, 301, 314–15, 317–18, 322–24, 327, 328, 330, 378, 384, 385, 387, 395, 403, 408 Space Shuttle design and, 158–59 Martin, Roy, 82, 93 Martin Marietta, 62, 117 Mason, Jerry, 319–20, 322, 327–30, 387, 390, 394–96, 398, 404, 406–8, 432 Mathematica Inc., 58 McAllister, Mike, 411–12 McAuliffe, Caroline, 223, 238, 274, 280, 282, 297, 308, 343 McAuliffe, Christa, 222–25, 280, 373 birth of, 222 on Challenger mission, 294, 295, 297, 302, 304–6, 316, 359, 449 death in, 355, 368, 369, 373–74, 378, 384, 401, 414 on launch day, 339, 340, 342–44, 348, 350 media and, 216–17, 236–38, 242–43, 274, 275, 279, 284–85, 294–96 personal items packed for, 282, 418 recovery of remains and burial, 419, 426–28, 435–36, 438 science demonstration plans, 275 Teacher in Space program, 219–22, 224–25, 228–30, 234–38, 268–69, 274–75, 279, 285, 291, 296, 298–99, 316, 344, 365, 434 training for, 274, 275, 279–80 early life of, 222 education of, 222–23 marriage of, 222, 223 parents of, 222, 297, 299, 302, 342, 350, 354, 357, 358, 362, 375–76 politics and, 279 Resnik and, 274–75, 339 Scobee and, 280 teaching career of, 217, 223–24, 237 Tonight Show appearance of, 216–17, 242–43, 279 McAuliffe, Scott, 223, 238, 280, 282, 297–98, 342 McAuliffe, Steven, 220–24, 228, 274, 280, 282, 297, 299, 302, 343, 371, 376, 418, 441 post-Challenger life of, 453 McCandless, Bruce, 187–90 McConnell, Malcolm, 232 McDonald, Allan, 179–83, 202–4, 207–9, 254, 255, 257, 259–62, 269–71, 273, 313–15, 322, 326–28, 330–31, 348, 349, 364, 378–79, 381, 383–84, 454 post-Challenger life of, 453–54 Rogers Commission testimony of, 387–90, 392, 395, 397–98, 404, 407, 430 Thiokol and, 432, 441–42 McDonald, Linda, 181 McDonnell Douglas DC-10, 248–49 Flight 981 crash and, 249–50, 261 McNair, Carl, 85–87, 192, 296, 342 McNair, Cheryl Moore, 87–89, 146, 296, 299, 306, 371, 375, 441 post-Challenger life of, 454 McNair, Eric, 342 McNair, Joy, 296, 343, 375, 376, 454 McNair, Mary, 296, 342 McNair, Reggie, 186, 296, 308, 343, 375, 454 McNair, Ron, 84–89, 111, 146, 151, 205, 209, 454 astronaut application of, 89 on Challenger STS-41-B mission, 185–88, 190–92, 276 on Challenger STS-51-L mission, 229, 268, 295, 296, 299, 306, 308, 418 death in, 355, 362, 368, 369, 373, 375, 378, 384, 401, 414 on launch day, 340, 344 media junket for, 285 recovery of remains and burial, 419, 426–28, 435–36, 438 saxophone playing plans, 278–79, 285, 286, 452 training for, 277, 279 in college, 86–87 early life of, 84–86 in high school, 85–86, 186, 191 hometown visited by, 191–92 at Hughes, 84, 88–89 as karate master, 86, 87, 186, 418 marriage of, 88 at MIT, 84, 87, 88, 191 as musician, 86, 185–87, 190–91, 278–79, 285, 286, 452 PhD research of, 88, 191 racism experienced by, 85, 87 McNamara, Robert, 43 medicine, 46 Meese, Ed, 450 Memorial Coliseum, 374 Mercury program, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 26, 33, 46, 67, 83, 114–15, 147, 154, 341 capsules in, 35–37, 46 Mercury Seven in, 65, 66, 102, 147, 266 unmanned tests in, 122 Merritt Island, 20, 23, 113, 184, 247, 293, 295–96, 302, 304, 306, 314, 315, 321, 340, 347, 370, 399, 429 Michener, James, 218, 267–68 Michoud Assembly Facility, 62 Mintier, Tom, 343, 352–53 missiles, 35–36, 41, 59, 62, 160, 403 Titan, 41, 59, 161, 163, 164, 165, 204 Mission Control, 53, 94, 112, 162–63, 187, 226, 239–42, 261, 350, 353, 358, 360, 419, 420 CapCom in, 94, 116, 130, 138, 139, 151, 346, 352, 443 Columbia and, 130–34, 136, 139 communications satellite and, 278 Discovery STS-51-C and, 244 Nesbitt as chief commentator for, 1–4 Mission Management Team, 303, 316, 341 Mission Specialists, 65, 66, 78–79, 89, 90, 92, 106, 229, 275, 277 Mission Watch, 298 MIT, 84, 87, 88, 191 Mobile Launcher Platform, 325, 337 Moeller, Walter H., 70 Mondale, Walter, 25 Montgomery, Mable, 191 Moody Air Force Base, 79 moon bases, 54–55, 57, 157 moon landing, 444 Apollo 11, 28–30, 38, 54, 55, 64, 112, 119, 121, 139, 156, 187, 194, 223, 243, 340 Kennedy’s deadline for, 8, 9, 32, 52, 70 risk assessment of, 168–69 Moore, Jesse, 269, 271, 276, 301, 303, 304, 341, 346, 348, 367–68, 377–78, 381, 385–87, 399, 409, 417, 431 Morgan, Barbara, 237, 274, 279, 280, 294, 298, 350, 354, 357, 449 Mork & Mindy, 229 Mormons, 160, 247 Morton Norwich Company, 161 Morton Thiokol, Inc., 161 see also Thiokol Chemical Corporation Moser, Tom, 115, 117, 119, 136, 211, 212, 214 Motion Base Simulator, 109 Mousetrap, 108 Mullane, Mike, 103, 200 Mulloy, Larry, 172, 206–9, 255, 256, 262, 269, 270, 291, 314, 317–18, 322–24, 326–28, 330–32, 335–36, 341, 348, 364, 430, 432, 434, 437 post-Challenger life of, 454–55 Rogers Commission testimony of, 387–89, 393, 394, 395, 397, 406, 407–9 Smith’s lawsuit against, 439–40 Murrow, Edward R., 71, 72, 75 Musgrave, Story, 241–42 NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), 85, 174 NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics), 35, 37, 56 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 119, 156–57, 290 bureaucracy in, 64, 154, 156, 167, 177, 325, 410, 446 centers of, 53 Challenger disaster investigation by, 368, 378–82 Challenger disaster statement of, 364–65, 367–68 creation of, 37, 43 criticism of, 25 funding for, 29, 32, 40, 52, 53, 156, 157, 159, 276 goals of, 43, 44, 52, 231 militarization of, 43–44, 231–32, 282–83 Rogers Commission and, 382, 383, 409, 410, 415–17, 429–31, 433, 434, 443–44 Smith’s lawsuit against, 439–40 in space race with Soviet Union, 8–9, 32, 42–43, 52, 83 National Academy of Sciences, 384 National Aeronautics and Space Act, 43 National Aeronautics and Space Council, 68, 72 National Enquirer, 376 National Geographic, 128, 218 National Institutes of Health, 89 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 101, 232 National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), 59, 136 National Space Club, 242 National Transportation Safety Board, 401, 410, 424 Navy, US, 45, 100, 141, 400, 412, 425 Smith in, 263–67 Nazi Germany, 40–41, 158 NBC, 31–32, 360, 380 Nelson, Bill, 276–77, 284, 298, 374, 444 post-Challenger life of, 455 Nelson, George “Pinky,” 92, 130, 140, 316 Nesbitt, Steve, 1–4, 351, 354–58, 360, 371–72 post-Challenger life of, 455 Newsweek, 55, 141, 235, 279 New York Times, 51, 214, 377, 381, 385–87, 404 New York Times Magazine, 122, 279 New York Yacht Club, 219 Nichols, Nichelle, 84 9/11 attacks, 444 nitrogen, 12, 129 Nixon, Richard, 29, 31–33, 54, 55, 57–59, 62, 96, 104, 141, 298, 379, 382, 431 Noonan, Peggy, 366, 367 North American Aviation, 52 Apollo 1 and, 9–14, 17, 24, 26 X-15, 45–46, 47–52, 101, 140 North American Rockwell, 62, 440 see also Rockwell International North Carolina A&T State University, 86–87 nuclear weapons, 36, 41, 43, 160, 283 SALT and, 101–2 Nygren, Rick, 362 Oakbrook, TX, 102 Obama, Barack, 451 Office of Management and Budget, 58, 102 O’Hara, Eileen, 316 oil shocks and gasoline prices, 119, 120 Onizuka, Claude, 334–35 Onizuka, Darien, 245, 455 Onizuka, Ellison, 82–83, 145, 455–56 astronaut application of, 83, 92–93 on Challenger mission, 229, 268, 295, 296, 316, 418 death in, 355, 368, 369, 373, 378, 384, 401, 414, 439 on launch day, 334–35, 339, 344, 348 media junket for, 285 recovery of remains and burial, 419, 426–28, 435–36, 438 training for, 277 Columbia and, 116, 129–30 on Discovery STS-51-C mission, 244–45, 247, 253–55, 268, 303–4 early life of, 82–83 family background of, 82 Onizuka, Janelle, 245, 418, 455 Onizuka, Lorna, 82, 83, 92–93, 145, 244, 245, 343, 361, 371, 414, 441 post-Challenger life of, 455 Operation Paperclip, 40–41 Orbital Maneuvering System, 134, 137 Orbiter Processing Facility, 112, 114, 115, 118, 123, 233 Order of the Palmetto, 191 Oregon Trail, 376 O-rings, 164–73 “Apocalypse” letter about, 417–18, 457 cold temperatures and, 253–57, 259, 262, 392, 393 Challenger STS-51-L disaster and, 349–51, 381, 384 Challenger STS-51-L launch concerns about, 297, 300–301, 303–7, 310–20, 321–32, 335–36, 430, 436 Discovery STS-51-C and, 247, 253–55, 303–4, 311, 313, 324, 329 Feynman’s ice water demonstration on, 393–94 damage found in, 143, 166–68, 170, 171, 173, 204–9, 385–86, 416, 417, 430, 433 as acceptable risk, 208, 256, 270, 393 anomaly team investigation of, 259 Boisjoly’s concerns about, 251–62, 271–72, 311–13, 319, 323–29, 331, 408, 430 on Challenger STS-51-B, 258 on Columbia, 143, 170, 171, 173 escalation of, 323 Feynman’s study of, 392, 421 Hardy and, 271 McDonald and, 270 as self-limiting, 206, 208 manufacturing process for, 169–70 secondary, 164, 169, 172, 206–8, 252, 253, 258–60, 270, 323, 329, 350, 386 squeeze in, 164, 166, 255, 257, 323 tests of, 166–68, 171–72, 205–6, 256–57, 259 Orlando Sentinel, 305 O’Shaughnessy, Tam, 456 Outpost Tavern, 111, 267 Overmyer, Bob, 114 oxygen, 129, 168, 236, 292, 333, 338 in Apollo 1 cockpit, 12–14, 17, 19, 24 in shuttle engines, 96–98 Paige, Hilliard, 14 Paine, Thomas, 30–31, 54–55, 57, 169 Pan Am, 223 Parker Seal Company, 167, 179 Patrick Air Force Base, 302, 426 Paul VI, Pope, 23 payload specialists, 193, 209, 225–27, 276 People, 216, 279 Pepsi, 238 Personal Egress Air Packs, 438–39 Pe-Te’s Cajun BBQ House, 111 Petrone, Rocco, 340, 341 Pipeline computer program, 115, 118 Poindexter, John, 381 Point Roberts, 400 Port Canaveral, 400, 401, 403, 405, 414, 418, 420, 426 Preserver, 412–14, 418–20 Press, Frank, 101 Promontory plant, 160–62, 165, 167, 171, 180, 207, 246, 247, 250, 252, 256, 315, 319, 331, 359, 405, 432, 441 see also Wasatch plant proximity operations, 211–13 Purdue University, 239 Quiñones, John, 317 Ragland, Dayton “Rags,” 73 Rather, Dan, 4, 317, 339, 360 RCA, 90 Reader’s Digest, 42, 232 Reagan, Nancy, 142–43, 344, 376 Reagan, Ronald, 79, 128, 140–43, 204, 214, 218, 231, 247, 267–68, 279, 282, 283, 380, 410, 445 assassination attempt on, 4 Challenger disaster and, 359, 365–66, 368–70, 376, 377 Rogers Commission and, 380–83, 398, 429 State of the Union addresses of, 343–44, 365, 366, 369, 434 Teacher in Space program and, 220–21, 344, 369, 434 reconnaissance missions, 43–44, 101–2 Redstone Arsenal, 53, 157, 300 Reedy, George, 72 Regan, Donald, 380–81 Reinartz, Stan, 317–18, 322, 331–32, 335, 341, 397 Remote Manipulator System (robot arm), 110, 116, 149–51, 188, 277 Resnik, Charles, 89 Resnik, Judy, 89–90, 111, 147–52, 209, 236, 280, 286, 416 amateur astronauts as viewed by, 274–75 astronaut application and acceptance of, 89–93 astronaut training of, 102 on Challenger mission, 229, 268, 274, 295, 299–300, 316, 419 death in, 355, 368, 369, 373, 378, 384, 401, 414, 439, 441 on launch day, 339, 344, 350, 351 media junket for, 285–86 recovery of remains and burial, 419, 426–28, 435–36, 438 training for, 277 Columbia and, 116, 129 Culbertson and, 286, 362 on Discovery mission, 196–201, 207, 221 early life of, 89 education of, 89–90 “J.R.” nickname of, 149 McAuliffe and, 274–75, 339 robot arm operations of, 116, 149–51, 277 Resnik, Marvin, 299–300, 350, 371, 414, 435 post-Challenger life of, 456 Ride, Sally, 93, 107, 147, 148, 150, 151, 153, 174, 221, 231 media attention to, 153 post-Challenger life of, 456 robot arm operations of, 150, 151 on Rogers Commission, 382, 398, 408, 436 Right Stuff, The (Wolfe), 74 Riley, Dick, 191 robot arm, 110, 116, 149–51, 188, 277 Rocketdyne, 52, 62, 97, 98, 240 rocket engines, 38–39, 54, 96–98, 134, 157–58 F-1, 159 liquid-fueled, 61–62 solid, 61–62 see also Space Shuttle solid rocket boosters rocket planes, 81 X-15, 45–46, 47–52, 101, 140 rocket-powered escape systems, 60 Rocket Propulsion Test Complex, 98 rockets, 36, 53, 58, 232 Saturn, 9, 18, 39, 40, 58 V-2, 40, 41 Rockwell International, 62, 95, 108, 113, 114, 119, 129, 135, 217, 248–50, 310 Challenger launch and, 334, 337, 338, 340–42, 381, 406 Rodgers, Don, 456 Rogers, William, 382, 383, 385–90, 393–99, 404, 406, 407, 409–10, 429–31, 433–34, 436, 453 Rogers Commission, 384–90, 391–99, 404–10, 391–99, 404–10, 416–17, 420–22, 453, 454 Boisjoly’s testimony to, 395, 396, 398, 404, 408, 430 Thiokol and, 432, 441–42 creation of, 380–83 criminal prosecution and, 434 Feynman on, 382, 389, 391–94, 396, 408, 420–22, 433 Appendix F for, 433, 449–50 ice water demonstration in, 393–94 launch decision examined by, 385–89, 395–99, 404, 406–10, 420, 430 McDonald’s testimony to, 387–90, 392, 395, 397–98, 404, 407, 430 Thiokol and, 432, 441–42 Mulloy’s testimony to, 387–89, 393, 394, 395, 397, 406, 407–9 NASA and, 382, 383, 409, 410, 415–17, 429–31, 433, 434, 443–44 press and, 404, 406 Reagan and, 380–83, 398, 429 report of, 382, 429–37, 443 astronauts’ families and, 436–37 concluding statement of, 431, 433 recommendations in, 431 specialized teams on, 420–21 Thiokol and, 385, 387–90, 394–98, 404–9 Rogers Dry Lake, 81 Rotating Service Structure, 304, 305 Royal Navy, 143 Rumsfeld, Donald, 25 Russell, Brian, 319, 322–24, 359, 432 Russia, 445 Sacramento Bee, 51 Safire, William, 33 Sakata, Norman, 83, 335 Salinas, Sylvia, 149, 197, 286, 316 SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), 101–2 Salt Lake City, UT, 169 Salyut 5, 78 San Francisco Examiner, 120 Sänger, Eugen, 40, 41 satellites, 42, 161, 194–96, 209, 434 communications, 278, 290 European Space Agency, 232 lost, 187 recovery of, 211–15 Space Shuttle and, 186, 187, 211–15, 225, 226, 232, 276–78, 290, 445 Sputnik, 41 spy, 43–44, 59, 446 Tracking and Data Relay, 277–78 Saturn V, 159 Saturn rockets, 9, 18, 39, 40, 58 Schmitt, Harrison “Jack,” 28 Scientific American, 87 Scobee, Dick, 79–82, 103, 108, 145–46, 206, 209, 280–81 astronaut application and acceptance of, 82, 93 astronaut training of, 102 on Challenger STS-41-C mission, 183–84 on Challenger STS-51-L mission, 229, 268, 274, 280–81, 293, 295, 299, 306, 310, 316–17, 418 death in, 355, 362, 363, 368, 369, 373, 375, 378, 384, 401, 406, 414–15 in launch, 350–52 on launch day, 334, 336, 338–39, 344, 345, 348, 349 media junket for, 284, 286 recovery of remains and burial, 419, 426–28, 435–36, 438 training for, 277 Columbia and, 116, 129, 130 McAuliffe and, 280 Scobee, June, 79–81, 102, 103, 145–46, 280, 286, 294, 299, 302, 316, 361, 363, 371, 374–76, 406, 414–15, 435–37, 441, 443 post-Challenger life of, 456 Scobee, Kathie, 80, 102, 184, 280 Scobee, Rich, 80–81, 102, 145, 184, 299, 436 post-Challenger life of, 456 Scott, Walter, 85 Scott-Heron, Gil, 31 Second World War, 40, 67, 281, 295 Seddon, Rhea, 93, 147, 148 Columbia and, 116 training of, 105–7 Senate and House Committee on Space, 68 Sepia, 75 Shea, Joe, 10, 11, 13–14, 17, 23–24, 27 Shepard, Alan, 10, 46, 53, 68, 217, 222 Sherr, Lynn, 213 Shuttle Landing Facility, 295, 300 Shuttle Training Aircraft, 277, 306, 338 Sieck, Bob, 303, 355 Silbervogel, 40, 41 Skylab, 103, 119–20 slavery, 191 Slayton, Deke, 22, 65–66, 76, 229, 243 Smith, Alison, 263, 265–69, 308, 309, 335, 343, 350, 354, 356–57, 361–63, 370–72, 406, 435, 457 Smith, Erin, 266, 308, 350, 361, 372, 435 Smith, Jane Jarrell, 264, 265, 268, 302, 316, 343, 350, 356, 363, 371, 372, 375, 406, 414, 427, 435, 437, 439 lawsuits filed by, 439–41 post-Challenger life of, 457 Smith, Mike, 263–69, 427, 457 Abbey and, 267–68 on Challenger mission, 229, 268–69, 295, 297, 302, 305–7, 308, 315–16, 419 death in, 355, 361–63, 368, 369, 373, 375, 378, 384, 401, 414, 438–40 on launch day, 335, 339, 344, 348, 350, 352 media junket for, 286 recovery of remains and burial, 419, 426–28, 435–36, 438 training for, 277 early life of, 263–64 marriage of, 264 NASA joined by, 266 Navy career of, 263–67 Smith, Scott, 263, 264, 266, 267, 308, 343, 350, 356, 372, 435, 457 Soviet space program, 8–9, 32, 41–43, 52, 83, 290, 369 Buran, 102 female cosmonauts in, 66, 69, 70 Gagarin in, 9, 42–43, 71 Salyut 5, 78 Sputnik, 41 Vostok 1, 43 Vostok 6, 70 Soviet Union, 41, 42, 402, 444 Challenger disaster and, 374 Cold War with, 29, 32, 41, 43–44, 160, 231–32, 444 nuclear arms of, 101–2, 160 reconnaissance satellites and, 44, 59 Space Shuttle and, 60 Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars program) and, 232, 282 Space and Naval Medicine Congress, 67 Space Camp, 224 Space Communications Group, 193 Space Flight Participant Program, 217–20, 235, 243, 274–75, 291, 445 Teacher in Space, 219–22, 224–25, 228–30, 234–38, 260, 268–69, 274–75, 279, 285, 291, 296, 298–99, 316, 344, 365, 369, 434 space flight simulation facilities, 443 spaceplanes, 38, 40, 81, 98 Dyna-Soar, 41–43, 60 X-15, 45–46, 47–52, 101, 140 Space Shuttle “anomalies” in, 176, 177, 203, 208 cockpit of, 109 computers of, 131, 137–40, 155, 162–63, 241, 242, 292 cross-range ability of, 59–60 design and development of, 33, 37–38, 55–62, 81, 94, 96–100, 107 Faget’s work in, 34, 37–38, 57, 60–62, 98, 130, 137, 447 engines of, 96–98, 123, 134, 154–55, 240–42, 260–61, 364 Feynman and, 421–22 Enterprise (originally Constitution) test vehicle, 62, 95–96 heat-insulating tiles on, 98–100, 113–15, 117–19, 121–23, 129, 133–38, 141, 226, 227, 334, 411, 446 lack of crew escape system on, 154, 164 Main Propulsion System of, 239 mission simulators, 109–10, 117 post-flight examinations of, 233 safety concerns about, 154–55 solid rocket boosters of, see Space Shuttle solid rocket boosters spare parts for, 233 toilets on, 78, 275 Space Shuttle astronauts African American, 64–66, 71–77, 78, 79, 83–84, 92, 93, 144–46, 151–53, 174, 191 civilian, 216–19, 285, 365, 369, 370 Hughes Aircraft employees, 193–96, 209–11, 225–26, 275–76 journalists, 291, 445 politicians, 227, 275–77, 284 Space Flight Participant Program, 217–20, 235, 243, 274–75, 291, 445 Teacher in Space program, 219–22, 224–25, 228–30, 234–38, 260, 268–69, 274–75, 279, 285, 291, 296, 298–99, 316, 344, 365, 369, 434 first group of, 144–48, 236 as Astronaut Candidates, 102–11, 115–16, 150 competition and jealousy among, 152, 153 flight assignments of, 144, 148, 150–54 recruitment of, 62, 63–79, 82–84, 89–94, 154 Red and Blue teams of, 108, 116, 148 relationships among, 144–46, 148 “TFNGs” acronym for, 94 training of, 94, 102, 105–11, 115–16, 144 female, 64–71, 76, 78, 79, 83–84, 90, 92, 93, 107, 144, 150–53, 174, 200, 221, 231 Mission Specialists, 65, 66, 78–79, 89, 90, 92, 106, 229, 275, 277 payload specialists, 193, 209, 225–27, 276 Space Shuttle Atlantis, 232–33, 449 Space Shuttle Challenger, 143, 174, 210, 227, 232, 234, 256 burned rocket nozzles in, 175, 179, 182 on launchpad, diagram of, 458 space walks from, 174, 186, 188–90, 277 STS-7 mission, 151, 153 STS-8 mission, 144, 151, 153, 174–75 STS-41-B mission, 185–92, 276 STS-41-C mission, 183–84 STS-51-B mission, 258 Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51-F aborted launch of, 236, 238, 261, 269 beverage dispenser on, 238 launch of, 238–42, 261 Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51-L, 229, 284, 286, 293–301 astronauts on, see Jarvis, Greg; McAuliffe, Christa; McNair, Ron; Onizuka, Ellison; Resnik, Judy; Scobee, Dick; Smith, Mike at Kennedy Space Center, 295, 303, 304, 313, 321, 333, 335, 349, 361, 362 launch of, 1, 3 booster rocket temperature in, 337–38, 345 cold weather and O-ring concerns about, 297, 300–301, 303–7, 310–20, 321–32, 335–36, 430 cold weather during, 337, 367, 368, 385, 386, 388, 389 countdown to, 307, 308, 317, 334, 341–44, 346–49 date for, 293, 294, 296–97, 300, 301, 303–6 day of, 333–53 door latch problem and, 309–10, 316, 317 dress rehearsal for, 293 final decisions for, 329–32, 341–42, 346, 368, 399, 408, 409 launchpad ice and, 311, 325, 333–34, 337–41, 343, 345, 349 liftoff and ascent, 349–52, 354–55, 357, 360 prelaunch party, 302 readiness reviews for, 300–301, 303, 322–32, 393, 430 recovery ships and, 318–19, 321, 331–32, 341 rumors about White House pressure for, 434 signed recommendation for, 329–32, 336, 395 solid rocket boosters in, 337–38, 345, 348, 364, 429–30 spectators at, 296–98, 305–6, 308, 342 televising of, 347, 348, 351–53, 373 Thiokol debate on, 311–15, 317–20, 322–32, 335–36, 347, 348, 350, 386, 388, 389, 395–98, 404–9, 430, 432, 437 media and, 284–86, 295–96, 317, 342, 343, 348, 354 night viewing of, 302 solid rocket boosters on, 337–38, 345, 348, 364, 425 disaster investigation and, 378–81, 384, 422–23, 429–30 recovery of debris from, 402, 403 temperature readings of, 337–38, 345 Teacher in Space program for, 219–22, 224–25, 228–30, 234–38, 260, 268–69, 274–75, 279, 285, 291, 296, 298–99, 316, 344, 365, 434 Space Shuttle Challenger STS-51-L disaster, 3–4, 352–53, 354–72, 409, 444, 446, 449 families of astronauts lost in, 354, 356–57, 361–63, 365, 366, 370–72, 374–76, 378, 401, 405–6, 443 financial settlements for, 436, 437, 440–41 Rogers Commission report and, 436–37 wreckage recovery and, 414–15, 426–28 final moments in, 427, 438–40 investigation of, 365 boosters and O-rings pinpointed in, 378–81, 384 by NASA, 368, 378–82 by Rogers Commission, see Rogers Commission media coverage of, 354–55, 357, 359–61, 364–65, 367–68, 372, 374–77, 379–81, 383, 385–88, 402, 405 memorials for astronauts lost in, 376–77, 406, 443 as mystery, 377 NASA statement on, 364–65, 367–68 national bereavement and tributes following, 371–72, 373–74, 376–77 O-rings in, 349–51 Reagan’s statements on, 359, 365–66, 368–70, 376, 377 recovery of wreckage from, 378, 399–405, 423–25, 429 booster rocket, 422–23 burial of, 444 computers, 419 cost and scope of operations, 425 crew cabin, 411–15, 418–20, 437–39 Personal Egress Air Packs, 438–39 personal items, 418–19 tape recorders, 419, 437–38, 440 spectators and, 354–55, 357, 370 video footage of, 363–64, 378–79, 381, 382 Space Shuttle Columbia, 112–24, 173, 198, 232 computers of, 131, 137–40 construction of, 96, 108, 112–19, 121–24 ejection seats on, 154 engines of, 134 heat-insulating tiles on, 113–15, 117–19, 121–23, 129, 133–38, 141, 411, 446 heat shield damage on, 133–37 at Kennedy Space Center, 112, 113 lack of unmanned test flights for, 122, 124 launch of, 1, 104–5, 123–24, 127–33, 167 O-ring damage on, 143 reentry of, 136–40 rocket boosters of, 132–33, 143 satellite images of, 136–37 STS-1 mission, 128–43, 410, 446 STS-2 mission, 143, 170, 173 STS-5 mission, 173 STS-9 mission, 151 STS-61-C mission, 276–77, 289–94 STS-107 mission, 445–47 disaster, 447–48, 449 Space Shuttle Discovery, 226, 232–34, 246, 256, 268, 370, 443, 444 cold weather and, 247, 255 STS-41-D mission, 196–201, 202, 207, 221 STS-51-A mission, 211–15 STS-51-C mission, 244–45, 247, 253–55, 268, 303–4, 311, 313, 324, 329 Space Shuttle program, 119, 415, 431, 444, 449 “acceptable risk” assessments in, 175–78, 208, 256, 270, 393 Challenger disaster and, 369, 382, 384 contingency plan for handling news of accidents in, 364–65 cost effectiveness of, 58–59, 141, 232 costs of and funding for, 57–58, 61, 100–102, 113, 122, 142, 232 crossroads of, 232 delays in, 96, 113–15, 119, 121–23, 127–29, 201, 226–27, 232, 234, 417 first fatalities in, 129 flight designation system in, 183 Flight Readiness Reviews in, see Flight Readiness Reviews flight test program condensed in, 142 Hubble Space Telescope and, 290–91 launch schedules in, 153, 174, 201, 204, 226–27, 232–34, 253, 254, 256, 257, 259, 272, 290, 293, 328, 431 media and, 121–22, 128, 141, 214, 234, 236, 417 military payloads in, 244–45, 268, 290, 445 number of orbiters in, 62, 96, 102, 142, 154 operational flights begun in, 142, 153, 156, 172, 173, 204, 218 Remote Manipulator System in, 110, 116, 149–51 risk assessment of, 168, 169 Rogers Commission recommendations for, 431 satellite projects in, 186, 187, 211–15, 225, 226, 232, 276–78, 290, 445 Skylab and, 120 space walks in, 174, 186, 188–90, 214, 277 Space Shuttle solid rocket boosters, 61–62, 122, 132–33, 143, 155, 158–73, 175, 178, 182, 202–9, 230, 240, 260–61 assumptions and failures in program for, 396 Booster Systems Engineer and, 239–40 on Challenger STS-51-L, 337–38, 345, 348, 364, 425 disaster investigation and, 378–81, 384, 422–23, 429–30 recovery of debris from, 402, 403 temperature readings of, 337–38, 345 diagram of, 457 on Discovery STS-41-D, 199, 202, 207 estimates of failure in, 421, 422 Flight Readiness Reviews and, 178–79, 208, 254, 255, 257, 260 joints in, 163–73, 179, 205–7, 252–53, 255, 256, 258–62, 269, 270–72, 396 as Criticality 1 items, 207, 270 problems accepted as normal in, 208–9, 256 putty in, 164, 170, 172, 204, 205, 207, 252, 254, 257, 392, 204, 205, 207, 252, 254, 392 redesign of, 431 see also O-rings McDonald’s presentation on, 269–71 nozzles in, 175, 179, 182, 204, 258, 270 redesign of, 441–43 refurbishing of, 246 retrieval and postflight inspections of, 245–46, 252, 257–58 Challenger STS-51-L and, 318–19, 321, 331–32, 341 stacking process for, 170, 172, 204, 384 test firing of, 165–66 Thiokol’s contract for, 62, 328, 430, 441 competing bid possibility and, 181–82, 203, 204 see also Thiokol Chemical Corporation space stations, 54–55, 57, 231 International Space Station, 445, 449 Salyut 5, 78 Space Transportation System, 33, 55, 57, 62, 96, 341, 385, 449 see also Space Shuttle program space walks, 174, 186, 188–90, 214, 277 Springer, Bob, 266, 268 Sputnik, 41 spy satellites and missions, 43–44, 101–2, 136–37, 446 Stalin, Vasily, 41 Stallone, Sylvester, 279 Star Trek, 84, 95, 209 Star Wars program (Strategic Defense Initiative), 232, 282 State Department, 71 Stevenson, Charlie, 333–34, 337–38, 344, 345 Stewart, Bob, 187, 189–90 Stinger, 212–14 Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars program), 232, 282 Sullivan, Kathy, 93 Sununu, John, 298, 305 Super Bowl, 297, 306 Surely You’re Joking Mr.

Apollo 11: The Inside Story
by David Whitehouse
Published 7 Mar 2019

How and why was this allowed to happen?’ On 2 May von Braun fled from Oberammergau. His brother, Magnus, was with him, and when they saw an approaching soldier, Magnus approached the man on a bicycle, calling out: ‘My name is Magnus von Braun. My brother invented the V-2. We want to surrender.’ The Americans were delighted. Operation Paperclip was the code name for the secret removal of scientists from Nazi Germany, undertaken not only for the direct benefit of the Americans but also to deny the USSR. Forty railway carriages containing the spoils – tons of documents, a hundred V-2s, test-firing rigs, a liquid oxygen plant and over 300 tons of other equipment – were dispatched to Antwerp and Navy cargo ships.

Accessory to War: The Unspoken Alliance Between Astrophysics and the Military
by Neil Degrasse Tyson and Avis Lang
Published 10 Sep 2018

Michael, 33 Mosul, Iraq, 34, 518n Mountain Pass Mine, California, 383 MOUT (Military Operations on Urban Terrain), 201–2 Mowthorpe, Matthew, 258 Mumford, Lewis, 381–82 muons, 218 Murtha, Jack, 412n Mussolini, Benito, 403–4 mutual assured destruction (MAD), 298 Myer, Albert J., 123–26, 127–28, 448nn myopia, 442n Mysteries of the Sun and Soul (Kritzinger), 427–28n Nagasaki, Japan, 111, 263, 301, 302, 303, 474n, 505n Naked and the Dead, The, 387 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) aerospace budget, 533n budget, 232, 282, 289–90, 320, 345, 510n competition with Air Force, 289 contact with China prohibited, 376 cooperation with Pentagon in Vietnam War, 290 creation of, 270, 271 critiques of non-science budget, 369–70 funding of space research, 21 mandate for Moon landings, 289 Manned Spaceflight Center (Johnson Space Center), 286 National Academy of Sciences, 231–32, 251, 267, 269 National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, 270, 277, 279, 287 National Bureau of Standards, 192, 453n, 455n National Defense Education Act, 270 National Endowment for the Arts, 289 National Nuclear Security Administration, 390 National Priorities Project, 14 National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), 21, 204, 225, 228, 231–32, 500n, 501n, 517n National Science Foundation, 21, 227, 267, 271, 533n national science laboratories, 28–29 National Security Act of 1947, 265, 481n National Security Agency/Central Security Service (NSA/CSS), 13–14, 413n National Security Council, 265, 268, 270, 276 national security, defined, 13–14, 413nn National Space Program, The, 283 National Space Symposium, 16–20, 24–25, 26, 414n, 415n, 417n Natural Magick (Porta), 107 Nauplius (king), 446n Nautical Almanac (Maskelyne), 94 Navajo resistance to westward expansion, 124 navigation by ancient mariners, 66–74 challenges in fifteenth century, 84–85, 86–87 clues used by wayfinders, 64–66, 82 dead reckoning, 77, 82, 86 defined, 65–66 ephemerides and, 82, 94 instruments and devices of early navigators, 74–75 magnetic compass development, 75–78 in the Mediterranean in 1320, 77–78 questionnaires on longitude and latitude, 90, 438n running down the latitude, 82 see also charts, maritime NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), 278, 332, 335–36 Nazi Germany astrology and, 57–63, 427–28nn, 429nn Grossdeutschland as driving vision, 64 Nostradamus used for propaganda, 59, 428–29nn near-Earth objects (NEOs), 253–54, 255, 256 Necho (king), 73, 434n Nehru, Jawaharlal, 351 Nelson, Horatio, 115–16, 122 Netherlands military use of telescopes, 110–11 Twelve Years’ Truce with Spain, 104, 107 New Astronomy, The (Langley), 148 Newell, Homer, 369 New Guinea, 64, 430n Newton, Isaac colors and, 145, 166–67 longitude and, 93, 95 on necessity of experiments, 460–61n on particle nature of light, 146, 169 spectrum produced from white light, 145, 166–67, 461n telescope design, 444n on twinkling of stars, 152 New-York Convention of August 1776, 113 New Zealand, 65, 78 NII-4 think tank, 264 Nimbus satellites, 291 1984 (Orwell), 317, 508n Nixon, Richard, 271, 281, 473n Noah’s use of a dove, 65 no-first-use policies, 309, 507n noise in CCDs, 203 cooling of telescopes to avoid, 170, 203 defined, 220 infrared noise, 170 jamming and, 260, 515n static in radio communications, 177, 178 from Van Allen radiation belt, 216 non-financial business sector, 4 nonlethal weapons using nonvisible wavelengths, 201–2, 470–71n North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), 16, 353–54 North Atlantic Treaty, 265 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 265, 305–6, 309–10, 328 North Korea ASAT (antisatellite weapon) program, 259 satellite surveillance of missile-launch sites, 379, 482n Sohae Satellite Launching Station, 206 Taepodong-1 intermediate-range ballistic missile, 256 tension over missile and nuclear programs, 253, 299, 310, 356, 530n Northrop Grumman B-2 stealth bombers, 198, 303, 470n campaign contributions, 412n in Colorado Springs, 16 James Webb Space Telescope, 23 military-related projects and sales, 18, 23 overview, 22–23 prosperity after September 11, 2001, 11, 12 Starshade screen, 21 Nostradamus, 53, 59, 428–29nn NSC 162/2, 304–5, 506n NSC 68, “A Report to the National Security Council,” 266, 314, 499n nuclear accidents, 255–60, 484–85n nuclear explosions damage from, 302 gamma-ray bursts, 215, 473–74n peaceful (PNEs), 499n see also atomic bombs; fusion bombs; nuclear tests Nuclear Operations doctrine document, 308, 311 “nuclear Pearl Harbor,” 411n Nuclear Posture Review Report, 308 nuclear tests Bikini Atoll nuclear bomb tests, 402–3 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 313–14, 508n Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 215, 273, 285, 287, 293, 313, 498n moratorium under Eisenhower, 307 problems from, 284–85, 302, 496–97n as “psychosis,” 302–4 Sedan, 496n Starfish Prime, 302, 496–97n, 505n Tsar Bomba, 307, 505–6n unclassified data from, 402 yields of, 303–4, 505–6n Obama, Barack national security strategy, 323 nuclear policy, 308 space budget, 510n space policy, 503n summit with Hu Jintao, 376 UN General Assembly speech, 387–88, 528n Wall Street speech, 4–5 obelisks, 40 Obering, Trey, 481n Oberkochen, Germany, 132 “October effect” in stock market, 56 Odysseus, 45, 67 Oliver, Bernard, 470n Olson, Roy, 217 On the Ocean (Pytheas), 71–72, 434n On the Sphere of the World (Sacrobosco), 77, 83 On War (Clausewitz), 238 Operation Desert Shield, 340 see also Gulf War Operation Desert Storm absence of moonlight, 7, 79 aircraft used, 7, 332, 512n, 514n bomb hit rates, 332, 514n casualties due to fratricide, 334 news coverage and public reaction, 7–8, 341 shortage of GPS receivers, 333–34 stealth aircraft, 7, 197, 332, 514n see also Gulf War Operation Fishbowl, 290–91 Operation Iraqi Freedom, 16–17, 19, 24, 197, 346–47 see also Iraq War Operation Overcast, 262 Operation Paperclip, 262, 468n optical glass about, 130–31 British production in World War I, 135–36 cost, 131, 451n demand in World War I, 134–36, 139–40, 452n fuel used in production, 131, 450–51n US production in World War I, 139–40, 454–55n optical munitions, 132, 134, 135, 136, 140 optical telegraphs, 118–19, 120–28, 446–47nn see also telescopes Opticks (Newton), 166–67 Order of Christ, 79 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 327 Orient and Occident, 68 Orion Nebula, 103, 203 Orkney Islands, 71 Orwell, George, 317 Ostara, 421n Outer Space Treaty negotiations and diplomacy, 274, 313, 382, 503n omissions and limitations, 313, 314 provisions of, 273, 286, 287, 296–97, 313–14, 486n, 493n signing and ratification of, 292–93, 295–96, 314, 501n, 503n US space doctrine and, 296–97, 503–4n Owen, Wilfred, 387 ozone, 214, 225 Pakistan, 206, 310 Panama, 331, 499n Paris Agreement, 388, 528–29n Paris Observatory, 93, 94, 98, 133, 142 Parker, Hyde, 115–16 PAROS (Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space), 293–94 Parra Mantois et Cie.

…

budget proposals, 378, 527n on “fake news,” 509n “fire and fury” rhetoric, 306 immigration policy, 377 inauguration, 377 on NATO, 328 nuclear arms policy, 308 Paris Agreement and, 529n reaction against, 377–79 threats of nuclear escalation, 395, 530n truculence, 396, 530n Tsar Bomba, 307, 505–6n Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 263–64, 486–87n Turnbull, David, 92 Twelve Years’ Truce, 104 Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), 222 Two-Micron Sky Survey, 221 2001: A Space Odyssey (movie), 494n Tyson, Miranda, 8 Tyson, Neil deGrasse Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry, 15, 318, 411n Hayden Planetarium, 15 Natural History (magazine), 15 President’s Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy, 323 reaction to battle for Baghdad, 19–20 reaction to protestors against “weapons bazaar,” 17–18 Space Foundation board, 15–16, 20 Ufimtsev, Pyotr, 198 Uhuru satellite, 226 Ujjain, India, 94 ultraviolet radiation discovery of, 146, 168 Earth’s atmosphere and, 199, 214 experienced by humans or animals, 169–70 United Launch Alliance, 371 United Nations calls for peaceful use of space, 272–73, 382 concerns about space debris, 260, 486n treaties and proposals addressing space, summary, 293–95 treaty proposed to ban nuclear weapons, 310 see also Outer Space Treaty United States balance-of-trade deficit with China, 372–73 demand for military production in World War I, 135 experience of modern war avoided, 386–87 military spending, 12–13, 353, 412n, 519n, 533n, 534n optical glass production in World War I, 139–40, 454–55n Russian rocket engine ban, 371–72 Russian rocket engine sales to, 363, 364, 371 space spending, 520n see also Civil War United States Military Telegraph, 123 Universal Time (UT1), 99, 441n Uranus, 52, 62, 167, 304, 444n Urban VIII (pope), 51 Ursa Major (the Great Bear), 67–68, 432nn US Defense Mapping Agency, 99, 343 US economy competitiveness in global economy, 30, 31 research and development spending, 30 science and engineering, percentage of US employment, 21 share of world economy, 31, 419n technical industries, share of gross domestic product, 21 Ushant, France, 72 US Presidents and the Militarization of Space 1946–1967 (Kalic), 290 USS Abraham Lincoln, 24 U-2 spy plane, 198, 276, 278, 492n Van Allen radiation belt, 216, 302 van Creveld, Martin, 116, 117, 445–46nn Vedic astrology, 54 Vega, daguerreotype of, 144 Vela Hotel satellites, 216–17, 474n Vela Sierra and Vela Uniform programs, 474n Velázquez, Diego, 107 Venera probes, 211, 364 Venus albedo, 196 in astrology, 50 radar echoes from, 191 recorded in Mesopotamian tablets, 41 transit in 1769, 91, 92, 440n VERITAS (Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System), 199 Very Large Array, New Mexico, 199 Very Long Baseline Array, 182 Vespucci, Amerigo, 436n Victoria (ship), 88 Vidal, Gore, 35 Vietnam War antiwar movement and, 8, 410n author’s revulsion at, 9 in Johnson era, 289, 290, 500n in Kennedy era, 284 NASA cooperation with Pentagon, 290 photograph of naked Vietnamese girl (1972), 9, 17 and reaction to Desert Storm, 7–8 US troop numbers, 320 Vikings, 68, 78, 432n Vinland, 78 visible light, 100, 101, 165–66, 169, 199 von Braun, Wernher American space program, 267, 366, 488–89n, 523–24n Operation Paperclip and, 262, 468n V-2 rocket and, 193, 264, 468n Voting Rights Act of 1965, 288 V-2 Rocket Panel, 193 V-2 rockets, 58, 183, 193–94, 468–69nn Waiting for the Barbarians (Coetzee), 35 Wallace, David, 423n Wallenstein, Albrecht von, 49 war as stimulus for creativity, 4, 5–6 War of the Worlds (Wells), 242–43 Washington Crossing the Delaware (Leutze), 114–15, 445n Washington, George American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 112 command of the Continental Army, 112–15, 116 telescopes and, 111, 112–13, 115, 116, 130 water hole, 200–201, 470n Watson-Watt, Robert, 190, 194, 244–45, 465–66n, 467nn wavelength, defined, 100, 169 wave–particle duality, 169 Waxahachie, Texas, 29 wayfinders, clues used by, 64–66 weapons ASATs (antisatellite weapons), 257–59, 283, 291, 294, 356, 485n atomic bombs, 151, 190, 263, 303, 457n, 474n directed-energy weapons, 240–41, 242 evolution and development of, 238–40 fusion bombs, 304, 389, 390, 391, 474n kinetic-energy weapons, 240, 241 space weapons, 256–60, 286, 297–301, 312–13, 397, 485n Weeden, Brian, 397 Weinberg, Stephen, 368–69 Weston, Scott A., 393–94 “When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again,” 10 Whipple, John Adams, 144 White, Theodore, 56 Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), 232 wigwaggers, 125 Wilkins, Arnold, 244–45 Wilkins, John, 119–20 Wilson, Heather, 325 Wimperis, Henry, 244, 245 Wise, Donald U., 369 Wohl, Louis de, 61 Wolfowitz, Paul, 346–47 Wollaston, William Hyde, 145, 146 Wolter, Detlev, 295 Wood, John, 437n Worden, Simon P.

Beyond: Our Future in Space
by Chris Impey
Published 12 Apr 2015

He left Shanghai to study at MIT at the same time that Mao Zedong began the Long March, a bloody retreat from the Nationalist forces that helped cement his grip on the Communist Party. Qian then worked at Caltech, where he helped famed rocket scientist Theodore von Kármán found the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. At the end of World War II, Qian and von Kármán went to Germany and helped coordinate “Operation Paperclip,” which brought Wernher von Braun and other Nazi rocket experts to the United States. Qian became the foremost theorist on rocket propulsion in the country. Then seismic forces of politics intervened. In 1950, Korea became a bloody battleground, with the United Nations and the United States supporting the South and China and the Soviet Union supporting the North.

The Undertow: Scenes From a Slow Civil War
by Jeff Sharlet
Published 21 Mar 2023

It was time to proceed down what Diane called the “rabbit holes.” These were like secret pathways to spiritual truths. She had a long riff, for instance, about how Disney draws on satanic influences to control the minds of America’s youth (an increasingly mainstream view within right-wing media criticism), and a discussion of Operation Paperclip, the post–World War II program by which the U.S. government really did secretly import Nazi war criminals to work on biological weapons, and, yes, the possibility of mind control. That actually happened. And the connection Diane drew between Disney and these secret Nazis, while not true, wasn’t as farfetched as one might think.

Sorrowland: A Novel
by Rivers Solomon
Published 4 May 2021

Then, on live television, she declared war against all that was. Gogo had taken solace in the fact that the tragedy at least had been recorded. It would not be able to be buried. But that didn’t matter to Vern. The United States was a catalogue of known wrongs. Cainland was just another Tulsa, another Operation Paperclip, another Tuskegee. Who cared who knew if the knowing didn’t prevent future occurrences? Gogo didn’t disagree, of course, but she would always be a woman who appreciated history, who found value in the keeping of it. “You ready?” asked Gogo. Vern walked over to her. A medical team sorted the bodies, identifying them, zipping Cainites into black bags.

Our Moon: How Earth's Celestial Companion Transformed the Planet, Guided Evolution, and Made Us Who We Are
by Rebecca Boyle
Published 16 Jan 2024

In 1940, he officially became a member of the Nazi Party and, using the labor of concentration camp prisoners, built the V-2 on Hitler’s behalf.15 The rocket, Vergeltungswaffe Zwei (Vengeance Weapon Two), Earth’s first long-range ballistic missile, could carry a one-ton warhead nearly two hundred miles and it killed thousands of British citizens in the Blitz. In March 1945, with Germany in retreat, von Braun saw the writing on the wall and surrendered to the Americans. The U.S. government’s secretive Operation Paperclip brought him and about a hundred other German scientists to the United States. He became the director of Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama: rocket central USA. Von Braun’s obsession, which he claimed was the reason for his Faustian bargain with the Nazis, was space travel.16 He wanted to travel to the stars, and as he told later chroniclers—safely ensconced on American soil—he was less concerned with the morality of his funders and more concerned with doing the work.

Leaving Orbit: Notes From the Last Days of American Spaceflight
by Margaret Lazarus Dean
Published 18 May 2015

Public education was one of the first areas to feel the effects—high schools revamped their curricula to include more math and science, as well as Russian-language instruction. At the end of World War II, the best of Germany’s rocket designers had been recruited to the United States by a covert government group that later became the CIA. The project was called Operation Paperclip because the Germans’ affiliation with the Nazi party and/or the SS had to be covered up through fake documents, which were paperclipped to their files. The most important German rocket expert was Wernher von Braun, who had been responsible for the development of the V-2 rocket used to bomb Allied cities.

The Ultimate Engineer: The Remarkable Life of NASA's Visionary Leader George M. Low
by Richard Jurek
Published 2 Dec 2019

The approach was further solidified for Borman when he consulted with one of von Braun’s colleagues after the fire. “I remember a long conversation with Dr. Alexander Lippisch,” Borman said about his time working with Low and others to fix the Apollo spacecraft. Lippisch was a legendary German aeronautical engineer brought over with von Braun during Operation Paperclip after World War II to White Sands Missile Range. Inspired to go into the field of aviation after seeing a Wright brothers flight demonstration, Lippisch is the engineer who designed and built the first aircraft to fly under rocket power, and he designed the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered plane.

Checkmate in Berlin: The Cold War Showdown That Shaped the Modern World
by Giles Milton
Published 26 May 2021

They also seized a primitive nuclear reactor, drums of heavy water (deuterium-enriched water used in nuclear energy research), and what Pash described as ‘nearly the entire core of the Nazi atomic pile in uranium ingots’.10 Colonel Pash’s mission was but one of many, with the most spectacular being Operation Paperclip: it would eventually lead to the capture of more than 1,600 German scientists across Germany, including the rocket scientist, Wernher von Braun. Frank Howley was aware of this and wisely dropped the issue of the scientists snatched by Kotikov’s agents. Yet the atmosphere in the Kommandatura remained poisonous and Howley warned the Soviets that they were treading on thin ice.

Worn: A People's History of Clothing
by Sofi Thanhauser
Published 25 Jan 2022

Indeed, it was such an effective nerve agent that rayon specialists moonlighted as war criminals. Walter Scheiber, who had been deeply involved with the Nazi yeast protein project (Biosyn-Vegetabil-Wurst), had worked on nerve agents at IG Farben before moving into rayon. After the war, Scheiber was recruited to work for the American postwar chemical weapons effort, Operation Paperclip. Rayon production was closely linked, via carbon disulfide, to poison gas and munitions manufacture. In Hungary, rayon plants were converted to munitions factories at the beginning of World War II. Munitions plants in New Castle, Delaware, had been repurposed by Delaware Rayon after the war.

A Generation of Sociopaths: How the Baby Boomers Betrayed America
by Bruce Cannon Gibney
Published 7 Mar 2017

You may expect that well-educated, motivated immigrants would be precisely the sort of people preferred by the system. Their improvement, after all, was paid for by some other country’s tax dollars and represents an outright transfer of value to the United States. These realities motivated Operation Paperclip, which held the national nose and vacuumed up German scientists after the war. And yet, visas like the H-1B for skilled immigrants (now unburdened by Nazi pasts) are notoriously difficult to get, capped at 85,000 (65,000 standard, 20,000 related to master’s degrees), though various administrative quirks manage to accommodate about 130,000 such persons annually.*,20 These individuals—as well as those on student visas—receive training at the partial expense of American corporations and universities.

Beyond: The Astonishing Story of the First Human to Leave Our Planet and Journey Into Space
by Stephen Walker
Published 12 Apr 2021

Keith 60, 63 Glenn, John 33, 106, 107, 120, 258; Atlas rocket, on 68; death 406; Discovery Space Shuttle flight 405; first American to fly in orbit 405; Gagarin space flight, reaction to 368, 383–4; Korean War service 24, 237–8; Mercury Seven selection process 24, 25–6, 27, 28, 34, 86, 144, 145, 147–8, 152, 238; Mercury Seven training 65, 71, 72, 107, 120, 145, 146, 147, 155, 238–42, 243, 368; Name That Tune, appearances on 24, 67; physical fitness 145, 155; president, runs for 405; press conference introducing Mercury Seven astronauts and 67–8; press conference reveals as one of three possible pilots for first US manned space flight 147–8, 152, 238; Senator 383, 405; Shepard and 25, 28, 34, 147, 238–9, 240, 241, 368; Titov and 411; weight 145 Glushko, Valentin 93, 94, 95, 104, 150–1, 292, 408 GMVK (State Inter-Agency Departmental Commission) 82 Goddard Space Flight Center, Maryland, US 129, 132, 145 Golovanov, Yaroslav 219–20, 223, 249, 375 Golyakhovsky, Vladimir 184, 185, 188 Goodall, Jane 134 Graybiel, Captain Ashton 113 Great Terror, Stalinist 92–3 Greenfield, Terry 144 Grissom, Virgil ‘Gus’ 26, 27, 30, 67, 68, 144, 146, 148, 152, 189, 238, 239, 240, 241, 243 Gromov Flight Research Institute (LII) simulator 30 Gurovsky, Nikolai 79 Gzhatsk Communist Party 329 Ham (chimpanzee) 108–11, 112–13, 115, 116–21, 124, 125, 126, 127–35, 139, 141, 142, 148, 151, 193, 241, 307, 309, 313, 406 Hatcher, Andrew 256 Hawkins, Colonel Jack 216 Henry, Jim 111–12 Hiroshima, bombing of (1945) 4, 45 Hitler, Adolf 39, 56, 92, 124, 408 Holloman Aeromedical Research Laboratory, New Mexico, US 107, 108, 109, 113, 406 Hornig, Donald 140–1, 197, 240, 241, 378 House Science and Astronautics Committee, US 262–3, 367, 383 Humphrey, Jack 129 Hungary 45 ‘Hymn to the Space Ship Vostok’ (poem) 382 IBM 98, 129, 132, 145, 294 Ilyushin, Lieutenant Colonel Vladimir 261, 262 Institute of Aviation and Space Medicine, Moscow 15, 79, 116, 157, 164, 168, 186, 221 Instructions from the Central Party Committee to the Cosmonaut on Use and Control of the Spacecraft Vostok 3A 173 International Geophysical Year 52–3 Isayev, Aleksey 226 isolation chambers 156–7, 158, 186–9, 209, 246, 262, 319 Ivan Ivanovich (mannequin) 161–2, 164, 165, 166, 167–8, 170, 171–2, 175, 176, 189, 192, 199–201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 249, 262, 283, 407 Ivanov, Colonel 184, 185 Ivanovsky, Oleg 96, 151, 228, 235, 257, 258, 288, 289–90, 291, 295, 296, 297, 311, 348, 356 Ivashutin, Pyotr 207, 210, 234 Izvestia 189, 365 Jackson, Henry 52 Jacobs, Jerry 330 Johnson, Lyndon B. 1, 7, 46–7, 48, 49, 52, 91, 399–400 Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, US 125 Judica-Cordiglia, Achille and Gian Battista 139–40 Juno rocket 57, 59, 69, 123–4 Jupiter-C rocket 56, 57, 59 Kalb, Marvin 256, 261 Kamanin, Lieutenant General Nikolai 37, 243, 410; Bondarenko and 188; Gagarin’s celebrity, on 374–5, 412, 413; Gagarin’s death and 414; Korolev, on 149–50, 309, 408, 409–10; mannequin flights and 167–8, 169, 190, 191–2, 201, 205, 206, 207; Moscow victory parade for Gagarin and 384–5, 389; selection of astronaut for Vostok 3A/first manned space flight and 172, 210–11, 212, 213, 222, 224, 248–9, 251, 252, 259, 390; Seryogin and 414; Vostok 3A Gagarin flight and 287, 288, 291, 309, 356–7, 373–4, 375; Vostok 3A launch, preparations for 205, 207, 208, 218, 220, 221, 225, 232, 234, 235, 269, 270, 271–2, 273, 277; Vanguard Six training and 34–5, 36–7, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 210–11, 212, 213, 222, 224, 248–9, 251, 259 Kamanina, Misyul (Musya) 218 Karpov, Colonel Yevgeny 35, 38, 153, 156, 222, 223, 235, 269, 271, 272, 277, 278, 283, 286 Kartashov, Anatoly 33 Kazakova, Irana 324 Kazansky, Viktor 104 Keldysh, Mstislav 190, 244 Kennedy, Jackie 5, 19, 20, 21, 70, 285, 366, 401 Kennedy, John F. 5, 47–8, 102, 143, 197, 318; Apollo programme and 396–7, 399–400, 403–4; assassination 44, 47; Bay of Pigs and 198–9, 215–18, 255, 376, 397–9, 401; ‘disproportionate risk’ of manned space flight, on 140, 141, 152; Freedom 7 and 401–2, 403; Glenn and 405; inauguration 19–21, 27, 29, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 75, 198; NASA budget and 197–9, 367, 383, 395–6; pitches opening ball of 1961 major league baseball season 254–6; Soviet first manned space flight, responses to 256, 262–3, 284–5, 329–30, 366–8, 375–7, 383, 393; Wiesner/Hornig report on the US manned space programme and 48–9, 70–1, 140–1, 197 Kennedy, Joe 21 Kennedy Space Center, US 404 Kerr, Robert 375–6 KGB 5, 13, 14, 15, 17, 82, 103, 156, 163, 179, 207, 210, 226, 234, 235, 353, 371, 374, 375, 387, 414 Khilchenko, Vladimir 299, 300 Khrushchev, Nikita 31–2, 45, 46, 95, 171, 247, 382, 408; Bay of Pigs and 397–8; Belka and Strelka orbital flight and 69–70; Gagarin Vostok 3A flight and 312, 323–4, 348, 362, 363–4; Gagarin as perfect poster child for 413; Gagarin promotion to Major, possible role in 323–4; Gagarin victory parade and 380, 384, 385, 386, 387–8, 389–90; Gary Powers and 181; Kennedy and 141, 143, 375, 377; Korolev and 97–9, 100–1, 102, 103, 104–5, 150, 151, 206, 210, 348, 356; Laika flight and 54; Luna probes and 59–60; selection process for Vostok 3A astronaut and 223, 250; space victories, realises importance of 47; Titov and 411 Khrushchev, Sergei 98, 99, 150, 223, 247, 312, 323–4, 380, 385, 387–8 Kilgallen, Dorothy 55 Kirillov, Anatoly 292, 299, 300, 301, 302, 304, 311–12 Kistiakowsky, George 144 Komarov, Anatoly 13, 14–15 Komarov, Vladimir 413–14, 415 Komsomol 249, 328 Korean War (1950–3) 24, 237–8 Korolev, Sergei 88, 89–106, 119, 169, 172, 174, 175, 407; appearance 96, 163–4; arrested by NKVD 92–3; Chief Designer of OKB-1 title and remit 90–1, 150; childhood 92; death 409, 413; dog space flight programmes and 115, 150, 152, 235; Gagarin and 105, 200, 229–30, 249–50, 266, 267, 271, 282, 288, 304, 375, 409, 413, 414, 415; Glushko and 93, 94, 95, 104, 150–1, 292, 408; Gulag, experience of 93–5, 97, 104, 230, 292, 413; health 94, 95, 97, 104, 230, 267, 408–9, 413; Instructions from the Central Party Committee to the Cosmonaut on Use and Control of the Spacecraft Vostok 3A and 173; Khruschev and 97–9, 100–1, 102, 103, 104–5, 150, 151, 206, 210, 348, 356; Kotovskaya and 164–5; manned space programme, USSR, importance to 90–2; mannequin space flights and 152, 158, 163–5, 166, 169–70, 200, 206, 208; moon landings, drive for USSR 408; Nesterenko and 178; OD-2 and 104; R-7 and 95–6, 119–20, 150, 177, 179; R-9 and 253, 256; secrecy of life 88, 97, 101, 102–3, 149, 163, 391, 409; storable fuels and 150–1; superstitious nature 253; Suvorov and 163–4; temper 96; Titov and 229; Tyuratam Cosmodrome and 177, 178, 179; Tyuratam Cosmodrome cottage 89–90, 91, 101, 139, 165, 175, 267, 269, 272; Vanguard Six training and 105, 158, 172, 192, 222, 225, 235, 249–50, 258, 259; Venera 1 and 91, 139, 149–50; victory parade for Gagarin, Moscow (1961) and 391–2; von Braun and 90, 92, 95, 96, 97, 102, 150, 408; Vostok 3A, authorisation for launch of manned flight and 207–9, 210, 212, 215, 218; Vostok 3A, choice of astronaut for manned flight and 222; Vostok 3A dehumidifying system and 225, 226; Vostok 3A emergency manual control system and 226–9, 247, 248, 268; Vostok 3A emergency survival package and 209; Vostok 3A flight/orbit and 304–13; Vostok 3A landing and 244–5, 348, 355, 356, 372; Vostok 3A launch and 291–303, 316; Vostok 3A launch preparations and 218, 225–6, 228–31, 232, 235, 247, 256–7, 258, 264–5, 266–7, 271, 272, 278–9, 280, 282, 287, 288; Vostok 3A mission naming of spacecraft and 208–9; Vostok spacesuits and 174; Voskhod and 408–9; wife and see Korolev, Nina; workload 206–7, 228–9, 230, 408–9 Koroleva (née Vincentini), Kseniya 92, 97, 410 Koroleva, Natalya 91–2, 94, 97, 102, 153, 206–7, 229–30, 250, 391–2, 409, 410 Koroleva (née Kotenkova), Nina 89, 91, 97, 101, 104, 106, 151, 206, 230–1, 264, 300, 391, 408, 409, 410 Kotovskaya, Adilya 32, 33, 91, 97, 164–5, 200, 269–70, 280–1, 286, 289, 306, 339 Kozlov, Frol Romanovich 223, 367 Kraft, Chris 68–9, 117, 125–6, 127–8, 130, 131, 132, 135, 143, 144, 145, 194, 195, 196, 402 Kranz, Gene 74, 129, 401 Kraskin, Vladimir 179, 300, 307–8 Kraskina, Khionia 179, 182, 183, 192, 305 Krivanchikov, Nikolai 7 Kryazh air base, USSR 373, 390–1 Kuettner, Joachim 135, 143 Kurennoi, Igor 252 Kuybyshev, Russia 167–8, 171–2, 221, 333–5, 351, 353, 355, 357, 365, 366, 372, 373, 374, 380, 390–1 Laika (dog) 53–4, 79–80, 115 Laos 45–6, 140, 198, 215 Lenin, Vladimir 7, 383, 389, 411 Leninsky 4, 175, 178, 182, 257, 305 Leonov, Aleksey 32–3, 83, 85–6, 87, 88, 105, 106, 251, 315–17, 414 Levitan, Yuri 322–5, 326, 327, 329, 331, 334, 345, 346, 351, 357–8, 359, 366 Life magazine 22, 23, 25, 27, 54, 55, 81, 86, 102, 106, 134, 145, 147, 154, 382, 388, 400 Lovelace Clinic, Albuquerque, New Mexico, US 64–6, 84 Lovelace, Mary 65, 195 Lovelace, William Randolph 65 Luna 1 (lunar probe) 59 Luna 2 (lunar probe) 59–60 Luna 3 (lunar probe) 60, 101 Lunney, Glynn 69, 195 Lysenko, Yakov 351–2 Makarycheva, Tatiana 369–70, 372 Malygin, Viktor 373 Man In Space Soonest (MISS) programme, USAF 61 Manhattan Project 396 mannequin space flights 17, 105, 116, 152, 158, 160, 161–70, 171–2, 173, 175–6, 189, 191, 192, 199–204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 249, 262, 283, 292, 338, 407 see also individual flight and vehicle name Mars 103, 150, 197, 246, 407, 417 Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, US 135, 142, 193, 383, 407 McDonnell 72, 143 McNamara, Robert 217 Menshikov, Mikhail 44 Mercury capsule 72–4, 81, 109, 116, 117, 118, 125, 131, 141, 142, 145, 156, 194, 227, 241–2, 290, 307, 313, 376, 400, 405 Mercury Control Center, Cape Canaveral, US 125, 128, 145, 194, 402 Mercury, Project 17, 22–8, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 48–9, 63–4; Hornig panel of inquiry, report on 140–1, 197, 378; Kennedy and 140, 141, 152, 198, 367; Mercury-Redstone (MR-BD) (unmanned) 192, 193, 194–8, 204; Mercury-Redstone 1 (MR-1) (Four-Inch Flight) 72–4, 75, 111, 126, 128, 142; Mercury-Redstone 1A (MR-1A) 74–5, 126; Mercury-Redstone 2 (MR-2) 107–35, 139, 141, 142, 143, 151, 193, 194; Mercury-Redstone 3 (MR-3) (Freedom 7) (first US manned space flight) 400–3; Mercury Seven and see Mercury Seven; origins of 17, 61–2; Space Task Group, NASA and 27, 37, 38, 64, 135, 142, 143, 147, 148, 156, 194; Wiesner and 48–9, 70–1, 140–1, 197, 378 Mercury Seven (astronauts) 22, 24–8, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 63–4; astronaut selection process for first space flight 24–8, 29, 34, 37, 38, 43, 63, 64–5, 66, 67, 75, 86, 147–8, 152, 238; Atlas rocket launch and 68; fame of 22, 31, 67–8, 283; ‘First Team’ press conference (1961) 147–8, 152, 238; Freedom 7 (first manned space flight) and 400–3; Moon landings and 404–5; press conference unveils, Washington (1959) 22, 63, 67–8, 78–9, 80, 105; selection process for entry into 63–7; training 21–8, 30, 31, 32, 68–9, 71–5, 80, 86, 107–8, 117–18, 144–8, 155, 238–42, 243 see also individual astronaut name Merritt, General Samuel T. 246, 247 MiG-15 42, 76, 77, 86, 216, 414 MiG-17 379 MiG-19 33, 86–7 Military-Industrial Commission, USSR 207–10, 212 Mishina, Galina 388 Miss Baker (monkey) 113 missile gap 44, 47–8 Mitchell, Edgar 404 Montazhno-Ispytatelnyj Korpus (Assembly and Test Facility) (MIK) see Tyuratam Cosmodrome Moon 57, 408; Apollo programme and see Apollo programme; Mercury programme and 404; probes 59–60, 101, 150; US and race to the 47–8, 50, 55, 59, 61, 74, 198, 396–7, 399–400, 403–5, 407, 408, 412, 417; USSR and race to the 59–60, 91, 101, 103, 150, 197, 407 Moscow, victory parade for Gagarin in (1961) 379–80, 384–92 Moskalenko, Kirill 243–4, 246, 258, 287, 288, 292, 300, 301 Multiple Axis Space Test Inertia Facility (MASTIF) (‘vomit machine’) 71, 240–1 Murrow, Edward 69, 70, 123, 284 Mushka (dog) 11–12, 167, 209–10, 226 NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) 21 Nagy, Imre 45 NASA: Apollo programme see Apollo programme; budget 197–9, 367, 383, 395–6; chimpanzee flights 17, 107–35, 139, 141, 142, 143, 151, 193, 194; Gagarin/Vostok 3A flight, reaction to 330, 367, 375–7, 383–4, 395–6; Gemini spacecraft and 408; manned space flight, first US 400–3; Mercury Program and see Mercury, Project; Moon landings and 395–7, 399–400, 403–4; origins of 21–2, 60, 61; Space Task Group 27, 37, 38, 64, 135, 142, 143, 147, 148, 156, 194; von Braun and see von Braun, Werner; Wiesner and 48–9, 70–1, 140, 141, 197, 284, 318, 329, 367, 378, 395, 396, 404; X-20 Dyna-Soar (hypersonic glider) and 61, 119 see also individual NASA site name National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) 60 National Security Agency, US 167 NATO 76, 208, 209 Naval Air Development Center, Pennsylvania, US 71, 237–42 Naval Photographic Intelligence Center, US 181 Nazi Party 40, 56, 74, 124, 186, 249, 285, 367, 407 Nedelin, Marshal Mitrofan 16, 181, 207 Nelyubov, Grigory 388; death 410; MiG-19, flies 33, 86–7; Vanguard Six selection process and 33; Vanguard Six selection process for first space flight and 37, 172, 174, 211, 220, 221, 222, 249, 251, 286; Vanguard Six training 232, 233, 234, 240; wife see Nelyubova, Zinaida Nelyubova, Zinaida 153, 410 Nesterenko, General Aleksey 178 New York Daily News 19, 134, 197, 204, 261, 285, 382, 402 New York Times 141, 197, 204, 205, 217, 329, 366–7, 387, 409 Nikitin, Nikolai 281 Nikolayev, Andriyan 32, 173, 174, 211, 220, 286, 287–8 Nixon, Richard 47–8 NKVD secret police 92–3, 94, 409 N-1 rocket 407 North American X-15 61 Novikov, Mikhail 187 NII-4 (secret missile computation centre, Bolshevo) 294, 312–13, 323, 325 nuclear missiles 4, 12, 30, 44–5, 47, 48, 52, 58–9, 70, 72, 73, 94, 99–100, 150, 175, 398 Obama, Barack 406 Ogden, Dennis 261–2 Ogonyok 23, 86 OKB-1, Kaliningrad 16, 31, 90, 98–9, 105, 190, 205–7 OKB-124 (engineering bureau) 190–1, 226 Ostrander, Don 143 Pace, Joe 134 Pallo, Arvid 9–10, 13–16, 31, 70, 115, 168, 202, 203, 369, 370, 372 Paperclip, operation 56, 211 Pathet Lao rebels 198 Pavlov, Ivan 115 Pchelka (dog) 11–12, 167, 209–10, 226 Pentagon 64 People’s Commissariat for Labour, USSR 30 Perot, Ross 407 Petrovsky, Boris 409 pigs 113–14 Pioneer space probe 59, 82 Pisarenko, Nikolai 346–7 Plant 918, USSR 190 Ponomarev, Gennady 267 Ponomareva, Irina 189 Popovich, Marina 34–5, 36, 87, 153 Popovich, Pavel 211, 220, 221, 234, 250; Bondarenko and 185, 186; fear and Vanguard Six, on 235–6; humour 34; Korolev and 88, 90; R-7 and 173, 200–1; Ukrainian folk songs, loves to sing 34, 35, 86, 158, 186; Vanguard Six selection process and 82, 86, 87, 88; Vanguard Six selection process for space flight and 34, 174, 252; Vostok 3A flight and 292–4, 295, 296, 297, 305; wife and see Popovich, Marina Powers, Francis Gary 4, 181, 200, 209, 283, 333 Powers, John ‘Shorty’ 148, 330 Pravda 77–8, 86, 102, 169, 235, 251, 255, 359, 365, 371, 381, 382, 402, 409 President’s Science Advisory Committee, US 140 Price, George 54 Pushinka (Fluffy) 69–70 Pyatnitsky Choir 165, 166, 199 Raushenbakh, Boris 229, 265, 266 Reaction Propulsion Institute (RNII), USSR 93 Redstone missile 59, 148, 158, 173, 238, 241, 265; Mercury-Redstone (MR-BD) (unmanned) 192, 193, 194–8, 204; Mercury-Redstone 1 (MR-1) (Four-Inch Flight) 72–4, 75, 111, 126, 128, 142; Mercury-Redstone 1A (MR-1A) 74–5, 126; Mercury-Redstone 2 (MR-2) 107–35, 139, 141, 142, 143, 151, 193, 194; Mercury-Redstone 3 (MR-3) (Freedom 7) (first US manned space flight) 400–3 R-5 missile 95 rhesus monkeys 111, 112–13 Rigell, Ike 69, 73, 123–4 Rigell, Kathy 124–5 Rivera, Jim 254 R-9 missile 253, 256 Roosa, Stuart 404 Rorschach tests 66 R-7 rocket 10, 16, 30, 99–102, 104, 139, 158, 162, 166, 176, 201, 209, 253; CIA ‘kidnap’ upper propulsion stage of 101–2; CIA photographs 4, 101, 180, 181–2, 215, 245; Gagarin first sees 173; Gagarin/Vostok 3A flight and 4–6, 256, 257, 263–6, 280, 282, 288, 292, 297, 298, 300, 302, 303, 307–10, 313; Korolev and 95–6, 119–20, 150, 177, 179; mated to Vostok 3A capsule 263–4; third-stage engine 11, 12, 191, 200, 299, 307–10, 313 R-16 missile 16, 181–2, 300 R-2 missile 95 Rudenko, Sergei 190 Rudnev, Konstantin 207, 287 Rusk, Dean 215, 217 Russian Revolution (1917–23) 54, 353, 414 Sakharov, Andrei 94 Salinger, Pierre 283–4, 318, 329–30, 367, 397, 398, 399 satellites 46, 51–4, 55, 56, 57, 58, 69, 70, 78, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 148, 150, 182, 396 Saturn rocket 59 Saturn V rocket 404, 407 Savchenko, Yuri 345, 352, 353 Schirra, Walter ‘Wally’ 26, 27, 34, 66, 72, 402 Schlesinger, Arthur 217, 218 Second World War (1939–45) 24, 27, 39–40, 41, 42, 51, 53, 56–7, 68, 69, 73, 91, 123, 124, 142, 144, 178, 180, 182, 186, 205, 216, 235, 243, 249, 250, 278, 292, 294, 323, 363, 387, 388, 396, 407–8 Sedov, Leonid 103 Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, US 46 Serbin, Ivan Dmitrievich 223 Seryogin, Vladimir 414 769th Fighter Aviation Regiment, 122nd Fighter Aviation Division USSR 76–88 Shemya, US ELINT station on 166–7, 318 Shepard, Alan 31, 33, 49, 71, 91, 106, 107, 147, 242, 258, 330; Apollo 14, commands 404; car racing 146, 155; death 405; Distinguished Service Medal, awarded 403; Freedom 7 (first space flight) 400–1, 402–3; Gagarin’s flight, learns of 368, 383–4; Glenn and 24–5, 147, 238–9, 240, 241, 368; love affairs, rumours of 146–7; Mercury-Redstone (MR-BD) (unmanned) and 158–60, 196; Mercury-Redstone 2 (MR-2) and 108–9, 117, 118, 120–1, 122, 125, 126, 129, 135; Mercury Seven selection process for first US manned space flight and 24–6, 27–8, 29, 34, 38, 43, 64–5, 66, 67, 75, 86, 147–8, 152, 238; Mercury Seven training 71, 72, 73, 75, 108, 144, 145, 146, 155, 239–41, 243; physical fitness 146, 155; Sputnik and 50–1 Shepard, Julie 50, 401 Shepard, Laura 50–1, 401, 405 Shepard, Louise 28, 43, 106, 147, 401, 405 Shonin, Georgy 78, 79, 82, 186 Sidey, Hugh 21, 43, 44, 396, 397, 401, 402, 403 Slayton, Donald ‘Deke’ 26, 27, 65 SMERSH 207 Smirnov, Boris 70, 188–9 Smithsonian Air and Space Museum, Washington, US 406, 407 Solliday, Bob 65–6 Solodkyi, Viktor 346–7 Solodukhin, Vladimir 176, 232, 264, 266, 287, 295, 300 Sorensen, Ted 398–9 Soviet Academy of Sciences 80, 190, 203, 244, 259 Soviet Air Force 30–1, 34, 76–88, 171, 189, 190, 248, 259, 324, 335, 353, 358, 362 Soviet Space Forces 252 Soyuz rockets 99, 413–14, 461 Space Shuttle, US 61, 405 Space Task Group, NASA 27, 37, 38, 64, 135, 142, 143, 147, 148, 156, 194 Spacecraft Number 5 118–20, 133 Spacecraft Number 7 120 spacewalk, world’s first 32 Sputnik 1 7, 9–10, 51–3, 55, 75, 91, 95, 103, 105, 115, 150, 151, 166, 203, 377, 382, 389, 401 Sputnik 2 53–4, 55, 57 Sputnik 3 58 SS 6, 56, 57, 124, 143, 285, 408 Stalin, Joseph 42, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 207, 244, 322–3, 382, 413 Stapp, John 114 Star City (Zvyozdny Gorodok) 30–1, 412, 415, 416 State Department, US 215–18, 375, 403 Strategic Rocket Forces, USSR 243 Strelka (dog) 10–11, 23, 69–71, 115, 152, 166, 181, 406–7 Stuchenko, General Andrei 334 Studio for Science Films, Moscow 162 Sukhodrev, Viktor 387 Suvorov, Vladimir: Keldysh filmed by 244; mannequin flights, filming of 161–4, 165, 168, 202; Moscow victory parade for Gagarin, films 385; Vanguard Six, filming of 172, 173, 175, 221, 234–5, 258, 259, 266, 270, 271, 273; Vostok 3A flight preparations, filming of 278, 280, 286, 287, 289–90, 297–8; Vostok 3A launch, films 302 Takhtarova, Anna 349–50, 352, 354, 384 Takhtarova, Rumia 349–50, 352 TASS 12, 139, 141, 169, 181, 203, 204, 205, 206, 209, 212, 323, 324, 325, 328, 329, 371, 382 Thomas, George 366, 367 Tierney, John 66 Tikhonravov, Mikhail 119–20 Time magazine 21, 43, 57–8, 102, 114, 325–6, 396 Titov, Gherman 388, 390; celebrity 390–1, 411; death 412; Gagarin and 36, 37–8, 42, 84, 87, 249–50, 252, 373–4, 375, 388, 390, 411; individualism/rebellious nature 35, 155–6, 211, 229, 249; Korolev and 229, 409; Pushkin, love of 35, 84, 158, 172, 211, 250; space flight (August 6, 1961) 356, 410–11, 413; Vanguard Six selection process for first manned space flight and 35, 37–8, 42, 172, 211–12, 213, 222, 223, 224, 248–9, 250, 251–2, 258–60; Vanguard Six training and 84, 85, 87, 153, 154–6, 158, 172, 174, 203, 211–12, 213, 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 229, 232–3, 234, 240; victory parade for Gagarin and 390–1; Vostok 3A launch and 302, 312; Vostok 3A launch preparations and 265, 266, 267, 269, 270–1, 272, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 286, 287, 288–9; wife and see Titov, Tamara Titov, Igor 36, 252 Titova, Tamara 35–6, 84–5, 87, 153, 154–6, 219, 252, 326–7, 390, 411 Topchiyev, Aleksandr 203 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin 1, 41, 91, 275 Tupolev, Andrei 94 TV-3 (America’s first satellite) 54, 55 Tyuratam Cosmodrome, Soviet Republic of Kazakhstan 3–6, 89–106, 161–70, 177, 179–80, 225–31, 232–6, 243–53, 269–73, 277–313; CIA photographs 4, 101, 180, 181–2, 215, 245; construction of 178–9, 182–3; Korolev’s cottage 89–90, 91, 101, 139, 165, 175, 267, 269, 272; Montazhno-Ispytatel’nyj Korpus (Assembly and Test Facility) (MIK) 173, 175, 176, 178–9, 232–6, 244, 263–4, 280; Nedelin Cottage 269–73, 277–85; R-16 disaster at 16, 181–2, 300; Scientific and Testing Range No. 5 (NIIP–5) 3–6, 89–106, 101, 177; Site 1 91, 166, 176–7, 178, 179, 192, 253, 263, 264, 265, 266, 286–303; Site 2 161, 175, 179, 243–53, 269–73, 277–85; Site 10 175; Site 51 253; U-2 spy planes and 180–1, 215 Udacha (Lucky) (dog) (renamed, Zvezdochka (Little Starlet)) 164, 172, 173, 176, 199, 200, 202, 203, 205, 406–7 United Nations 45, 413 US Air Force 55, 61, 107, 109, 113, 114, 123, 143, 406 US Navy 24, 25, 26, 50, 52, 54, 55, 198 USS Donner 132, 133–4, 135 USS Essex 255 Ustinov, Dmitry 207 U-2 spy plane 4, 180–1, 215, 283, 334 Vanguard rocket 54, 55, 69 Vanguard Six: height of astronauts 81, 172; Korolev and see Korolev, Sergei; origins of programme 32; pay and lifestyle 154–5; selection process for 32–3, 76–87; selection process for first manned space flight 37–8, 42, 105, 210–12, 213, 222–4, 248–52, 253, 254, 258–60; training 30–8, 42, 75, 76–88, 105, 152–8, 171–92, 203, 210–12, 213, 218–24, 225–36, 240, 243–53, 258, 259 see also individual cosmonaut name Varlamov, Valentin 33, 220 Venera 1 91, 139, 141, 149–50, 210, 284, 299 Vershinin, Chief Marshal Konstantin 30–1, 362 Vishnevsky, General Alexander 188 Voas, Robert 64 Volynov, Boris 83–4, 87, 137, 156, 157, 188 Vomit Comet (KC-135) 71–2, 155 von Braun, Wernher 61, 71; appearance 55–6, 57–8; congratulates Russians on first manned space flight 383; death 407–8; Jupiter-C rocket and 57; Korolev and 90, 92, 95, 96, 97, 102, 150, 408; Mercury-Redstone (MR–BD) and 135, 142, 143–4, 158, 159, 192, 193, 194–5, 238; Mercury-Redstone (MR-2) and 124, 126, 130–1, 135, 142, 143–4, 158, 159; moon landings and 399, 403, 404, 407; Nazi Party and 56–7, 92, 95; Operation Paperclip and 56; Redstone rocket and 72, 73, 74, 111, 173; Saturn rockets and 59, 404, 407; SS and 56–7, 407–8; V-2 missile and 56–7, 74, 95, 111, 124, 407, 408 Voronin, Georgy 226 Voskhod 408–9 Vostok programme 91, 95, 120, 121; A.P.O. (Avariynyy Podryv Obyekta) (‘Emergency Object Destruction’) (on-board bomb/device) 11–12, 13, 14–15, 167, 169, 209–10, 226, 234, 257; braking engine 11, 170, 175, 191, 205, 206, 209–10, 226, 227–8, 233, 290, 313, 332, 333, 335, 336, 342; capsule 115–16, 120, 150, 152, 155, 156, 167, 170, 201, 203, 205; ejection from, landing and 156, 340–1, 342; emergency survival package 174, 190, 191, 205–6, 209; Globus device 174–5; ‘instrument module’ and ‘descent module’ 170; mannequin flights 17, 105, 116, 152, 158, 160, 161–70, 171–2, 173, 175–6, 189, 191, 192, 199–204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 249, 262, 283, 292, 338, 407; simulator 155, 232, 243; size of and height of astronaut and 30, 32–3; spy satellite version 150; state commission responsible for 152, 168, 190–1, 192, 206, 207, 226, 243–50, 251, 258–9, 280, 287, 292, 356, 372, 374, 380–1; Vostok 1 9–16, 23, 31, 37, 69–71, 115, 150, 152, 172, 203, 235; Vostok 3 16–17, 30, 104; Vostok 3 (Gagarin flight) see Vostok 3 (Gagarin space flight) Vostok 3 (Vostok 1) (Gagarin space flight) 152, 190–1, 229, 230, 234, 240; altitude records 244–5, 364; A.P.O.

God's Bankers: A History of Money and Power at the Vatican
by Gerald Posner
Published 3 Feb 2015

“Klaus Barbie and the United States Government,” A Report to the Attorney General of the United States, August 1983, Office of Special Investigations, U.S. Department of Justice, 136; see also Mark Fritz, “The Secret History of World War II: From Hot Conflict to Cold War; US Made Moral Compromises in Using Former Nazi Spy Network Against Soviet Threat,” The Boston Globe, Part 9 of 9, December 26, 2001, 1. 97 Operations Paperclip and Overcast were OSS programs that recruited 765 Nazi rocket scientists and engineers in the decade following the war. The recruits ranged from Wernher von Braun, the “father of rocket science,” to Hubertus Strughold, who was involved in medical experiments at the Dachau concentration camp.