operation paperclip Concepts

Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America

by Annie Jacobsen · 11 Feb 2014 · 612pp · 181,985 words

by U.S. officials in the name of national security, and it is about the unpredictable, often fortuitous, circumstances through which truth gets revealed. Operation Paperclip was a postwar U.S. intelligence program that brought German scientists to America under secret military contracts. The program had a benign public face and

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allowed individuals previously deemed undesirable to be brought to the United States—including Major General Dr. Walter Schreiber, the surgeon general of the Third Reich. Operation Paperclip left behind a legacy of ballistic missiles, sarin gas cluster bombs, underground bunkers, space capsules, and weaponized bubonic plague. It also left behind a

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that needed to be lengthened to create more workspace. In September 1943 machinery and personnel arrived from Peenemünde. Notable among the staff, and important to Operation Paperclip, was the man in charge of production, a high school graduate named Arthur Rudolph. Rudolph’s specialty was rocket engine assembly. He had worked

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perceived threats. Official policy would follow, one version for the public and another for the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). A headless monster called Operation Paperclip would emerge. PART II “The scale on which science and engineering have been harnessed to the chariot of destruction in Germany is indeed amazing. There

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the German scientists “may be lost to us.” After four days of deliberation Truman gave his official approval of the program and agreed that Operation Paperclip should be expanded to include one thousand German scientists and technicians and allow for their eventual immigration to the United States. With presidential approval official

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we cannot even pretend that we are making any real effort to achieve the aims we fought for.” Eleanor Roosevelt became personally involved in protesting Operation Paperclip, organizing a conference at the Waldorf-Astoria hotel with Albert Einstein as honored guest. The former First Lady urged the United States government to suspend

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another upon the shifting of a meal ticket is not better than Judas!” he said. Albert Einstein was the most esteemed figure to publicly denounce Operation Paperclip. In an impassioned letter, written on behalf of his FAS colleagues, Einstein appealed directly to President Truman. “We hold these individuals to be potentially

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door?” Their final question struck at the dark heart of the Nazi scientist program. “Do we want science at any price?” The condemnation of Operation Paperclip by these leading American scientists and others had a ripple effect on the general public. Reporters began searching for leads about individual German scientists’ wartime

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extraordinary times called for extraordinary measures, was also used by Schröder and Becker-Freyseng. The strange case of Konrad Schäfer played a unique role in Operation Paperclip. Having invented the Schäfer process to separate salt from seawater, Schäfer was clearly aware that concentration camp prisoners were going to be used in

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. But as the Cold War gained momentum and intense suspicion of the Soviets increased, even someone like Kurt Blome would eventually be deemed eligible for Operation Paperclip. PART IV “Only the commander understands the importance of certain things, and he alone conquers and surmounts all difficulties. An army is nothing without

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influenced by information the JIOA had recently received from the Office of the Military Government in Germany. After months of negative press attention directed at Operation Paperclip, spearheaded by the Federation of American Scientists and given further momentum by the American Jewish Congress’s having identified the Axsters, of Fort Bliss,

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Military Government, United States.” He was sent to the Army Chemical Center in Berlin, where he started working for the Chemical Warfare Service until his Operation Paperclip contract was finalized. When Friedrich Hoffmann arrived at Edgewood Arsenal in February 1947, America’s premier chemical weapons research and development facility had been producing

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Project AI.13-2.1. In Germany, Nazi scientists with knowledge of tabun and sarin were now being even more aggressively sought for recruitment into Operation Paperclip. Declassified documents reveal that the Chemical Corps wanted to employ Otto Ambros, but he was not available. Ambros was incarcerated inside the prison complex at

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Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg. Because Kuhn had an international profile before and during the war, he was a problematic candidate for Operation Paperclip. Though Kuhn had once been revered among scientists, Samuel Goudsmit of Operation Alsos was never afraid to remind colleagues that Kuhn had become an

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with LSD as a means of controlling human behavior, an endeavor that soon came to be known as mind control. Eventually, physicians and chemists from Operation Paperclip would work on jointly operated classified programs code-named Chatter, Bluebird, Artichoke, MKUltra, and others. LSD, the drug that induces paranoia and unpredictability and

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strongest, most impenetrable shield. Operation Bluebird was just the beginning. Soon the program would expand to include mind control techniques and Nazi doctors recruited under Operation Paperclip. CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Hall of Mirrors In the fall of 1948, in Germany, one of the most unusual press conferences of the Cold War took

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Germany. JIOA agreed and began making formal plans with the high commissioner’s office to effect this. The Korean War sparked a new fire under Operation Paperclip. Inside the high commissioner’s office, McCloy maintained a group called the Scientific Research Division that was specifically dedicated to the issue of German

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anonymity for decades. Their JIOA case files and OMGUS security reports were classified, as were the programs they worked on. But some of the Operation Paperclip scientists enjoyed the limelight for their work, notably in instances where their work crossed over from weapons projects into space-related endeavors. In this manner

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Holloman, as well as at Strategic Air Command headquarters, in Omaha, Nebraska, and the Pentagon. He also became a consultant to the Joint Chiefs on Operation Paperclip, visiting the inner circle in the Pentagon to discuss “clearance procedures” and the “hiring of German Scientists.” As a Paperclip scout, in 1952 Dornberger

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and is by no means a guarantee that information will be obtained. After the Arthur Rudolph story broke, journalist Linda Hunt began reporting on Operation Paperclip for CNN and the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. She filed FOIA requests with the different military organizations and intelligence agencies involved and received varied

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of these German scientists were seen as assets to the U.S. Army Chemical Corps’ nerve agent programs, and were thus wanted as participants in Operation Paperclip, secret deals were made, and the many documents pertaining to these arrangements were classified. President Clinton’s Interagency Working Group had access to eight

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” list was declassified and released to me. Included on this list, which had been in Colonel Benford’s possession, were seven Nazi doctors hired under Operation Paperclip: Theodor Benzinger, Kurt Blome, Konrad Schäfer, Walter Schreiber, Hermann Becker-Freyseng, Siegfried Ruff, and Oskar Schröder. The fact became instantly clear: U.S. Army

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President Truman to cancel Paperclip, calling anyone who served Hitler unfit for U.S. citizenship. (Library of Congress, World-Telegram) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The idea for Operation Paperclip first took hold while I was reading documents about two Nazi aircraft designers, Walter Horten and Reimar Horten, both of whom play a role in

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University, she lives in Los Angeles with her husband and two sons. PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS These brief character descriptions include information pertaining to the narrative of Operation Paperclip. Military titles refer to the highest rank achieved by individuals within the timeframe of this story. The term “Dr.” is used to identify medical

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.S. Strategic Bombing Survey sent to post-war Germany to locate engineers with knowledge about how underground weapons facilities were engineered. Recruited Georg Rickhey for Operation Paperclip. Colonel Dr. Robert J. Benford: Commanding officer at the U.S. Army Air Forces Aero Medical Center, he oversaw the research efforts of fifty

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Army Air Forces Aero Medical Center in Heidelberg, then arrested, imprisoned at Nuremberg, listed as a defendant in the doctors’ trial, and mysteriously released. Under Operation Paperclip he worked for the Naval Medical Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland. Dr. Kurt Blome: Deputy surgeon general of the Reich, deputy chief of Reich’s

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of Publication Board, a division of the Commerce Department. He was instrumental in getting secretary of commerce Henry Wallaces to lobby President Truman to endorse Operation Paperclip. L. Wilson Greene: Technical director of the Chemical and Radiological Laboratories at Edgewood, his secret monograph, entitled “Psychochemical Warfare: A New Concept of War,”

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suicide in May 1945. Friedrich “Fritz” Hoffmann: Wartime organic chemist at the chemical warfare laboratories at the University of Würzburg, and for the Luftwaffe. Under Operation Paperclip, he worked at Edgewood in the classified research and development division, the Technical Command, synthesizing tabun gas and later VX. For the CIA, he traveled

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national insurance,” he said. Karl Krauch: Chairman of IG Farben board of directors and Göring’s Plenipotentiary for Special Questions of Chemical Production. Courted for Operation Paperclip while incarcerated at Nuremberg, he was convicted alongside colleague Otto Ambros. Richard Kuhn: Nobel Prize–winning organic chemist who developed soman nerve agent for the

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for General Loucks’s Heidelberg working group on sarin production. Brigadier General Charles E. Loucks: Long-serving U.S. Army chemical warfare officer, he oversaw Operation Paperclip scientists working at Edgewood. He was transferred to Heidelberg, Germany, in June 1948, served as chief of intelligence collection for Chemical Warfare Plans, European Command

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for Accelerated Paperclip, McPherson recruited Dr. Kurt Blome to work on biological weapons research. Hermann Nehlsen: Sixty-three-year-old German aircraft engineer working under Operation Paperclip at Wright Field, he turned in Georg Rickhey for war crimes. Carl Nordstrom: Chief of the Scientific Research Division under U.S. High Commissioner McCloy

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. Albert Patin: Reich businessman whose wartime factories mass-produced aircraft instruments using a 6,000-person workforce that included slave laborers supplied by Himmler. Under Operation Paperclip he worked for the U.S. Army at Wright Field. Colonel William R. Philp: First commander of Camp King in Oberursel, Germany. He was

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one of the first wartime officers to arrive at Hermann Göring’s secret aeronautical research center at Völkenrode, where he recruited dozens of scientists for Operation Paperclip, later supervising them at Wright Field. Dr. Sigmund Rascher: SS doctor at Dachau who conducted medical murder experiments at Experimental Cell Block Five. His

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Germany as a defendant in the Dora-Nordhausen labor-concentration camp trial and was acquitted. Walther Riedel: Engineer with the V-weapons design bureau. Under Operation Paperclip he worked for the U.S. Army at Fort Bliss, Texas, before returning to Germany. Howard Percy “H. P.” Robertson: Physicist, collaborator of Albert

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colleague and coauthor of Dr. Strughold. As supervisor to Dr. Sigmund Rascher he administrated the medical experiments in Experimental Cell Block Five at Dachau. Under Operation Paperclip he worked for the U.S. Army Air Forces Aero Medical Center, in Heidelberg, before being tried at Nuremberg and acquitted. Emil Salmon: Nazi

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physiologist and chemist, he developed the Schäfer Process of desalination in pilot sea emergencies, which became part of the medical murder experiments at Dachau. Under Operation Paperclip he worked for the U.S. Army Air Forces Aero Medical Center, in Heidelberg, before being tried in the Nuremberg doctors’ trial and acquitted.

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photo album connecting IG Farben to IG Auschwitz. Gerhard Schrader: IG Farben chemist who discovered tabun nerve agent for the Reich. He repeatedly turned down Operation Paperclip contract offers but worked privately for General Loucks with the Heidelberg working group on sarin production. Major General Dr. Walter Schreiber: Surgeon general of the

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chemical warfare under Ambros, he inadvertently led Major Tilley to a document cache that led to the arrest and conviction of many Nazi colleagues. Under Operation Paperclip he worked for General Loucks’s Heidelberg working group on sarin production. Herbert Wagner: Chief armaments design engineer at Henschel Aircraft Company and inventor

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of the HS-293 missile. He was the first Nazi scientist to arrive in the U.S. under Operation Paperclip and worked for U.S. Naval Technical Intelligence. BIBLIOGRAPHY AUTHOR INTERVIEWS AND CORRESPONDENCE CONDUCTED 2011–2013 John Dolibois: Interrogator, prisoners of war, Central Continental

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Show,” New York Times, June 7, 2006. ______.“Md. Experts’ Key Lessons on Anthrax Go Untapped.” Baltimore Sun, November 4, 2001. Shaw, Herbert. “Wright Field Reveals ‘Operation Paperclip.’ ” Dayton Daily News, December 4, 1946. Shevell, Michael I. “Neurosciences in the Third Reich: From Ivory Tower to Death Camps.” Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences

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to their own devices: Bower, 165–68. new program protocols: History of AAF Participation in Project Paperclip, 1190–1192; Bower, 168. program would be called Operation Paperclip: History of AAF Participation in Project Paperclip, 1190-1192. McNarney wrote to JIOA: RG 319, JIOA, General Correspondence 1946–1952. “These [men] cannot now”:

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Stone, “Albert Hofmann, b. 1906: Day Tripper,” New York Times, December 24, 2008. first article on LSD: Stafford, 30. chemists from Operation Paperclip: That these programs were originally linked to Operation Paperclip through General Charles E. Loucks was not documented before this book. “I can help,” the caller said: Loucks Papers (USAMHI), “Desk Diary

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Land Commission for Baden-Württemberg in Stuttgart, in their Scientific Research Division. This meant that he was working for three governments at the same time. Operation Paperclip payroll until 1956: RG 263 Walter Schieber, “Official Dispatch, Chief of Mission, Frankfurt,” November 18, 1963. “a small clique of senior congressmen”: Tucker, 213.

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for the Nazi Scientists, for which Bower accessed unreported stories from both American and British archives. Both books helped me tremendously in my understanding of Operation Paperclip. Dr. Strughold had been listed: New York Times, “Portrait of Nazi Prompts Protest,” October 26, 1993. “[t]he notion that”: Breitman, Goda, Naftali, and

Area 51: An Uncensored History of America's Top Secret Military Base

by Annie Jacobsen · 16 May 2011 · 572pp · 179,024 words

’s rocket manufacturing plant, and shipped them to White Sands beginning the first month after the war. Under a parallel, even more secret project called Operation Paperclip—the complete details of which remain classified as of 2011—118 captured German rocket scientists were given new lives and careers and brought to the

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two distinct categories at the time. There was the let-bygones-be-bygones approach, an attitude summed up by the Army officer in charge of Operation Paperclip, Bosquet Wev, who stated that to preoccupy oneself with “picayune details” about German scientists’ past actions was “beating a dead Nazi horse.” The logic behind

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was, and continues to be, an odious one. It is likely that this is the reason why the federal government has never fully declassified the Operation Paperclip files. In 1999, a government panel released 126,000 pages of previously classified documents on former German Paperclips, but the panel also revealed that there

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rarely discussed the subject. In 1945, as a young OSS officer, Helms had worked in postwar Berlin. He was one of the key players in Operation Paperclip; Helms had been tasked with finding a group of Hitler’s former scientists and offering them positions on classified programs back in the United States

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-type aircraft that could allegedly hover and fly. Whatever happened to the Horten brothers? Unlike so many Nazi scientists and engineers who were recruited under Operation Paperclip, Walter and Reimar Horten were originally overlooked. After being captured by the U.S. Ninth Army on April 7, 1945, at their workshop in Göttingen

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; “Report on Hermes Missile Project,” Washington National Records Center, Record Group 156. 35. belonged to Adolf Hitler: Hunt, Secret Agenda, 27. 36. secret project called Operation Paperclip: Paperclip was a postwar operation carried out by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency, a special intelligence office that reported to the director of intelligence in

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Administration) In Area 12 of the Nevada Test Site, workmen enter an underground atomic bomb tunnel through its mouth, summer 1957. (National Nuclear Security Administration) Operation Paperclip scientists at Fort Bliss, Texas, in 1946. Until 1945, these men worked for Adolf Hitler, but as soon as the war ended these “rare minds

Chasing the Moon: The People, the Politics, and the Promise That Launched America Into the Space Age

by Robert Stone and Alan Andres · 3 Jun 2019

taking possession of Nazi scientific knowledge and technology for use in the war against Japan. However, after the Japanese surrender, the larger program was renamed Operation Paperclip and included many more former Third Reich engineers, technicians, and scientists. The code name arose from the Office of Strategic Services’ use of paperclips to

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treatment to some German scientists and engineers who had been Nazi Party members or suspected of complicity in war crimes. The first public news of Operation Paperclip came in an understated press release issued by the War Department on October 1, 1945. It announced that a carefully selected number of “outstanding German

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U.S. government did not go unopposed. Prominent physicists such as Albert Einstein and Hans Bethe as well as former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt criticized Operation Paperclip. But the larger looming reality of the Soviet Union’s brutal domination of Eastern Europe, legitimate fears of domestic espionage, and reports of a possible

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Allies. Two days before von Braun told his story to Ley, his picture had appeared in The New York Times in an article about the Operation Paperclip scientists. The Times reported that the technical knowledge of these “former pets of Hitler” would save American taxpayers an estimated 750 million dollars in research

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to withdraw his support for Ley’s efforts to find a government job. Culturally, the new global superpower that had welcomed von Braun and the Operation Paperclip engineers still suffered from a pervasive inferiority complex. The superiority of the European tradition in the arts and sciences went largely unquestioned. To the citizens

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to play in post-war America. In Washington, America’s Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency carefully sanitized the troublesome personal histories of von Braun and other Operation Paperclip engineers, much as Hollywood publicists fictionalized the biographies of actors under the studio system. Von Braun arrived in the United States aware that his wartime

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a well-received speech to the El Paso Rotary Club in January 1947, but not long after, reports appeared in newspapers that revealed that some Operation Paperclip engineers had to be sent back to Germany after troublesome details about their Nazi past had come to light. Most press accounts stressed the Germans

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with him entering the public spotlight. He had not spoken at either of the two American space conferences during the autumn of 1951, though other Operation Paperclip Germans—Dr. Hubertus Strughold and Heinz Haber—had delivered papers. Strughold had risen to prominence as a leading researcher on the physical and psychological effects

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to delve into the histories of former Nazis who had entered the United States under fraudulent circumstances. Soon there would be renewed interest in the Operation Paperclip Germans. In 1973, Arthur Rudolph, a key member of von Braun’s Saturn V team, who had overseen the production of the V-2 at

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delusions” Davin, Pioneers, p. 54. Lasser was incredulous Lynn Darling, “A Rebel Redeemed,” The Washington Post (April 23, 1980). Instead, the White House Annie Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program that Brought Nazi Scientists to America (New York: Little, Brown, 2014), p. 195. Early in 1945 ACC, “Peacetime Uses for V

Nuclear War: A Scenario

by Annie Jacobsen · 25 Mar 2024 · 444pp · 105,807 words

ALSO BY ANNIE JACOBSEN Area 51 Operation Paperclip The Pentagon’s Brain Phenomena Surprise, Kill, Vanish First Platoon An imprint of Penguin Random House LLC penguinrandomhouse.com Copyright © 2024 by Anne M. Jacobsen

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known as Site R. The bunker was built during the Cold War. Its original plans were drawn by the Nazi engineer turned U.S. postwar Operation Paperclip scientist Georg Rickhey, whose credentials the American military admired, and who had built Hitler’s underground bunker in Berlin during the war. The distance from

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Education and Activities,” NARA, Record Group 330, March 4, 1948; Bundesarchiv Ludwigsburg, Georg Rickhey file, B162/25299, author copy. For more on Rickhey, see Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip, 79–80, 251–260. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the words of former: Bruce G. Blair, Sebastien Philippe, Sharon K. Weiner, “Right of Launch

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. Hoffman, David E. The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy. New York: Doubleday, 2009. Jacobsen, Annie. Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America. New York: Little, Brown, 2014. Jacobsen, Annie. The Pentagon’s Brain: An Uncensored History of

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, 271. See also Strategic Air Command headquarters Ohio-class nuclear submarines, 180–83. See also nuclear-armed submarines Omega Site, 214 Operation Crossroads, 14–15 Operation Paperclip, 155 Operation Reflex Action, 86 Operational Plan (OPLAN 8010-12), 27 Oppenheimer, Robert, 229 Örencik Koy, Turkey, 292 Osan Air Base, Republic of Korea, 161

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AUTHOR Annie Jacobsen is the author of the Pulitzer Prize finalist in history The Pentagon’s Brain, the New York Times bestsellers Area 51 and Operation Paperclip, and other books. She was a contributing editor at the Los Angeles Times Magazine. A graduate of Princeton University, she lives in Los Angeles with

The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top-Secret Military Research Agency

by Annie Jacobsen · 14 Sep 2015 · 558pp · 164,627 words

three of whom were hired by the U.S. Army to work on secret U.S. underground engineering projects after the war, as part of Operation Paperclip. Plans for Raven Rock were first drawn up in 1948, including some by Rickhey. Work began shortly after the Russians detonated their own atomic bomb

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would have to accompany him there. Army intelligence had classified dossiers on each of von Braun’s 113 German colleagues. They were all part of Operation Paperclip, the secret intelligence program that had brought Nazi scientists to America after the war. Many of von Braun’s rocket team members had been ardent

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than finishing a book is the daily joy I get from Kevin, Finley, and Jett. You guys are my best friends. ALSO BY ANNIE JACOBSEN Operation Paperclip Area 51 NOTES Abbreviations Used in Notes ARCHIVES CIA Central Intelligence Agency Library, digital collection DSOH U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian

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Garrison, 23-29. 21 Georg Rickhey: Information on Rickhey comes from Bundesarchiv Ludwigsburg and RG 330 JIOA Foreign Scientist Case Files, NACP. See also Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip, 252. 22 a hospital, chapel, barbershop: Interview with Dr. Leonard Kreisler, March 2012. Kreisler was the post doctor at Raven Rock. 23 “land of the

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“I made my way with difficulty”: General Biographical History, Notes, Series 1: biographical materials, York Papers, Geisel. 18 von Braun’s 113 German colleagues: Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip, 16–17, 88, 95–96. 19 “not acceptable”: Barber, II-25. 20 good for national security: Kistiakowsky, 198. 21 York explained: York, Making Weapons, 117

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Spectrum, August 29, 2008. About the Author Annie Jacobsen is a journalist and the author of the New York Times best-sellers Area 51 and Operation Paperclip. A graduate of Princeton University, she lives in Los Angeles with her husband and two sons. CONTENTS Cover Title Page Welcome Dedication Epigraph Prologue PART

1946: The Making of the Modern World

by Victor Sebestyen · 30 Sep 2014 · 476pp · 144,288 words

serious malefactors? This was a question that informed Germans repeatedly asked Allied officials. They never received convincing answers. In the US Army’s highly efficient Operation Paperclip, around four hundred scientists and technicians were arrested, interrogated and, if they were of any potential use, shipped out of Germany, whatever their political beliefs

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Attlee, 20 January 1946, TNA: PREM 4 108. 203.34; Attlee to Shawcross, 22 January 1946, TNA: PREM 4 108. 203. 63. 21. Report about Operation Paperclip, FRUS, 1945, vol. 4, p. 455; quote about Rudolph, OMGUS Intelligence Department, RG 19.357. 22. OMGUS Intelligence Department, RG 16. 454. 23. Applebaum, Iron

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ref1 and Britain ref1 and clergy ref1 criticism of ref1 and Fragebogen questionnaire ref1, ref2 and German institutions ref1 and Nuremberg trials ref1, ref2 and Operation Paperclip ref1 and Persilschein certificates ref1, ref2 and the police ref1 problems facing Allies ref1, ref2 scientists and business leaders escaping ref1 Spruchkammer tribunals ref1, ref2

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Saints ref1 nuclear weapons see atomic bomb Nuremberg trials (1946) ref1, ref2 Odrodzenie (magazine) ref1 OGPI ref1 Okulicki, General Leopold ref1 O’Neill, Con ref1 Operation Paperclip ref1 Operation Pincher ref1 opium trade (China) ref1 Oppenheimer, J. Robert ref1 Orwell, George ref1, ref2 Ossowski, Stanislaw ref1 Oz, Amos A Tale of Love

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, ref2, ref3 Jewish population in ref1 loan negotiations with Britain ref1 and Marshall Plan ref1 occupation of Japan ref1, ref2, ref3, ref4, ref5, ref6 and Operation Paperclip ref1 and Poland ref1, ref2 refusal to grant loan to Soviet Union ref1 relationship with Britain ref1, ref2, ref3 and Second World War ref1 wanting

The Devil's Chessboard: Allen Dulles, the CIA, and the Rise of America's Secret Government

by David Talbot · 5 Sep 2016 · 891pp · 253,901 words

Nazi scientists recruited for U.S. research projects like this would be comfortably resettled with their families in America under a CIA program known as Operation Paperclip. One of the CIA-sponsored researchers who worked on the Artichoke interrogations in Germany, a Harvard-trained physician named Henry Knowles Beecher, was brought to

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: Memories of Oberursel,” Intelligence and National Security 8, no. 2 (April 1993): 81–90. 291the camp was operating as an extreme interrogation center: Annie Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 2014), 317–21. 292Beecher even began drawing on the work done by Nazi doctors: Alfred McCoy, Torture and Impunity: The

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Search for the Manchurian Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), 49. 293“He had a tough time”: Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip, 367. 294Olson was suffering a “moral crisis”: Family Statement on the Murder of Frank Olson, Aug. 8, 2002, http://www.frankolsonproject.org/Statements/Family Statement2002

Accessory to War: The Unspoken Alliance Between Astrophysics and the Military

by Neil Degrasse Tyson and Avis Lang · 10 Sep 2018 · 745pp · 207,187 words

see also Gulf War Operation Fishbowl, 290–91 Operation Iraqi Freedom, 16–17, 19, 24, 197, 346–47 see also Iraq War Operation Overcast, 262 Operation Paperclip, 262, 468n optical glass about, 130–31 British production in World War I, 135–36 cost, 131, 451n demand in World War I, 134–36

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, 68, 78, 432n Vinland, 78 visible light, 100, 101, 165–66, 169, 199 von Braun, Wernher American space program, 267, 366, 488–89n, 523–24n Operation Paperclip and, 262, 468n V-2 rocket and, 193, 264, 468n Voting Rights Act of 1965, 288 V-2 Rocket Panel, 193 V-2 rockets, 58

Arriving Today: From Factory to Front Door -- Why Everything Has Changed About How and What We Buy

by Christopher Mims · 13 Sep 2021 · 385pp · 112,842 words

winning various Cold War races against the Soviets. (At the close of World War II, Braun was shipped to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip and would prove instrumental in helping capitalists beat communists to the moon.) On the V-2 rocket, Braun gave the world its first real inertial

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H. Goddard, American Rocketry Pioneer,” NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, February 11, 2015, https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/about/history/dr_goddard.html. Operation Paperclip: Annie Jacobsen, Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program That Brought Nazi Scientists to America (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2015). getting humans to the moon: “The Inertial

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, 9 Omar, Nimo, 171 Onetto, Marc, 221–26, 228, 229–30, 232, 248 OOCL, 22, 26, 29, 36 OOIDA (Owner-Operator Independent Drivers Association), 111 Operation Paperclip, 144 ORION (On-Road Integrated Optimization and Navigation) system, 283–84 Osaro, 246 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration), 233, 240, 279 Pacific Maritime Association

Beyond: The Astonishing Story of the First Human to Leave Our Planet and Journey Into Space

by Stephen Walker · 12 Apr 2021 · 546pp · 164,489 words

) and 124, 126, 130–1, 135, 142, 143–4, 158, 159; moon landings and 399, 403, 404, 407; Nazi Party and 56–7, 92, 95; Operation Paperclip and 56; Redstone rocket and 72, 73, 74, 111, 173; Saturn rockets and 59, 404, 407; SS and 56–7, 407–8; V-2 missile