by Kenneth Rogoff · 27 Feb 2025 · 330pp · 127,791 words
wealth and income distribution.15 From a practical policy perspective, however, it makes little sense to have the Fed concentrate on inequality as opposed to price stability. Its core instrument, the interest rate, is ill-suited for performing surgical redistribution of income and wealth. The Fed’s dual mandate to maintain stable
by Geert Mak · 27 Oct 2021 · 722pp · 223,701 words
); and the budget deficit must be less than 3 per cent. A European central bank was set up, but its powers remained limited to maintaining price stability by setting key interest rates and controlling the European Community’s money supply. As French economist Thomas Piketty later put it, ‘For the first time
by Hans Kundnani · 16 Aug 2023 · 198pp · 54,815 words
the treaty stated: “The Union shall establish an internal market. It shall work for the sustainable development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy, aiming at full employment and social progress, and a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of
by Francis Fukuyama · 7 Apr 2004
serves the needs of its clients—the citizens of the state. In areas like monetary policy, the goals of policy are relatively straightforward (that is price stability) and can be met by relatively detached tech- the missing dimensions of stateness 27 nocrats. Hence central banks are constructed in ways that deliberately shield
by John Pinder and Simon Usherwood · 1 Jan 2001 · 193pp · 48,066 words
, nor any member of their decision-making organs, is to take instructions from any other body. The ‘primary objective’ of the ESCB is ‘to maintain price stability’ though, subject to that overriding requirement, it is also to support the Union’s ‘general economic policies’. The ECB has the sole right to authorize
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Eurozone comprise ECB’s Governing Council. ECB and central banks together form the European System of Central Banks (ESCB), whose primary objective is to maintain price stability. None of these participants may take instructions from any other body. European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC): Launched by the Schuman Declaration of 9 May
by George A. Selgin · 14 Jun 2017 · 454pp · 134,482 words
not attempt to address the Fed’s success at bank supervision. INFLATION The Fed has failed conspicuously in one respect: far from achieving long-run price stability, it has allowed the purchasing power of the U.S. dollar, which was hardly different on the eve of the Fed’s creation from what
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when making long-term contracts, engaging in long-term planning, or borrowing or lending for long periods. As economist Martin Feldstein has frequently pointed out, price stability also permits tax laws, accounting rules, and the like to be expressed in dollar terms without being subject to distortions arising from fluctuations in the
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theory of time inconsistency, that moderation supplies no grounds for complacency about the Fed: Policy-makers may have greater appreciation for the importance of maintaining price stability, but the fundamental institutions by which monetary policy decisions are made have not changed, nor has the broader political environment. Shocks similar to those that
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, unnecessarily linking monetary policy to the rescue of failing institutions. Moreover . . . loan losses could compromise the Fed’s independence and thus weaken its commitment to price stability in the future. In light of such considerations, it would be better, according to Kuttner (2008: 12), “to return to Bagehot’s narrower conception of
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revival.46 RULE-BOUND FIAT STANDARDS Given that the postwar fiat standards managed by discretionary central banks have generally failed to deliver the long-run price stability that was delivered by the gold standard, Finn Kydland and Mark Wynne (2002: 1) ask whether a better fiat regime is possible. They note that
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, “What about the large country, the ‘peggee’? What rule or regime can a large country such as the United States . . . adopt to guarantee long-term price stability?” A well-known and very simple type of monetary rule is a fixed growth path for M2, as advocated by Milton Friedman in the 1960s
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to day. Eventually, the United States separated from the gold standard and Congress tasked the Federal Reserve to set its policies in order to maintain price stability. Now, the Fed is in charge of keeping the purchasing power of a dollar stable so that when people want to buy or sell something
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’t to turn a profit, and its managers are rewarded not according to how profitable it is, but according to their perceived success in promoting price stability and high employment, among other goals.16 Bureaucratic incentives, therefore, incline Fed officials, not to deny last-resort aid to firms that (according to Bagehot
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necessary to support financial stability while implementing the monetary policy that is appropriate in light of the System’s macroeconomic objectives of maximum employment and price stability.” More specifically, the step was made necessary, the press release goes on to say, because the Open Market Desk had “encountered difficulty achieving the operating
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Friedman, University of Chicago, Ill. (November 8). ——— (2004) “The Great Moderation.” Speech at the Eastern Economic Association Meetings, Washington (February 20). ——— (2006) “The Benefits of Price Stability.” Lecture at the Center for Economic Policy Studies, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. (February 24). ——— (2008a) “The Economic Outlook.” Testimony before the Joint Economic Committee
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Instruments for Open Market and Discount Window Operations.” Washington: Board of Governors. Feldstein, M. (1997) “The Costs and Benefits of Going from Low Inflation to Price Stability.” In C. D. Romer and D. H. Romer (eds.), Reducing Inflation: Motivation and Strategy, 123–56. Chicago: University of Chicago Press and National Bureau of
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of 2008.” Working Paper (December 30). Williamstown, Mass.: Williams College. Kydland, F. E., and Wynne, M. A. (2002) “Alternative Monetary Constitutions and the Quest for Price Stability.” Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Economic and Financial Policy Review 1 (1): 1–19. Kydland, F. E.; Wynne, M. A.; and Prescott, E. C. (1977
by Mervyn King · 3 Mar 2016 · 464pp · 139,088 words
by slow growth and rising unemployment – the combination known as ‘stagflation’. The direct consequence was that central banks were reborn as independent institutions committed to price stability. So successful was this that in the 1990s not only did inflation fall to levels unseen for a generation, but central banks and their governors
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central banks much greater independence in order to bring down and stabilise inflation, subsequently enshrined in the policy of inflation targeting – the goal of national price stability. The second was to allow capital to move freely between countries and encourage a shift to fixed exchange rates both within Europe, culminating in the
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Paul put it more bluntly. The management of money, in rich and poor countries alike, has been dismal. Governments and central banks may talk about price stability, but they have rarely achieved it. During the 1970s, prices doubled in the United States in ten years and in Britain they doubled in five
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functions in a capitalist economy is that its value – its purchasing power in terms of goods and services – must be in some sense stable. Defining price stability in a world where new goods and services come along that were not available before is a hazardous undertaking. Official statisticians are always adding new
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stable institutions, such as the United Kingdom and United States, inflation has eroded the value of money over the past century.33 Both countries saw price stability in the nineteenth century, only to experience significant inflation in the twentieth century when prices accelerated rapidly, especially in the immediate aftermath of the First
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be underrated. It was the result of successful institutional design (see Chapter 5). Nevertheless, designing a system of monetary management that is capable of achieving price stability – providing the right amount of money in good times – and coping with crises – providing the right amount and quality of emergency money in bad times
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recent crisis could be seen almost two hundred years earlier: rapid expansion in overseas lending, a stock market boom, a central bank trying to restore price stability, a collapse of the banking system, concern about the interconnectedness of banks, the absence of effective regulation, official purchases of government bonds and drastic intervention
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). Those two functions are rather simple to state, if hard to carry out. They correspond to the twin objectives of price stability and the provision of liquidity by a ‘lender of last resort’. Price stability – inflation targeting as a coping strategy Eighteenth-century thinkers, such as David Hume and Adam Smith, understood the relationship
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cent, more than over the previous two hundred and fifty years.12 Inflation was simply taken for granted. Price stability seemed an unlikely state of affairs. Alan Greenspan, former Chairman of the Fed, defined price stability as when ‘inflation is so low and stable over time that it does not materially enter into the
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of households and firms’.13 Alan Blinder, the Princeton economist who was Greenspan’s deputy at the Federal Reserve Board, put it even more clearly. Price stability, he said, was ‘when ordinary people stop talking and worrying about inflation’.14 In recent years, we have started to take
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price stability for granted; so much so that some people have become exercised about the possibility of deflation – when prices fall. Deflation is just as damaging as
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; seven thousand soldiers and countless civilians perished during the suppression of the uprising. In more modern times, governments, even if they profess a belief in price stability, have found themselves tempted to depart from the path of righteousness in order to obtain a short-term benefit by stimulating the economy prior to
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an institution to create the reasonable expectation that money will retain its value? By tying the currency to the mast of gold it seemed that price stability over a long period was attainable, as indeed it was for much of the nineteenth century. But even the gold standard could not override national
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find a way to retain domestic control over the supply of money and liquidity while at the same time retaining a long-term commitment to price stability. Unfortunately, the switch from a fixed rule, such as the gold standard, to the use of unfettered discretion led to the failure to control inflation
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the Great Inflation of the 1970s. Attention turned to the idea of delegating monetary policy to independent central banks with a clear mandate to achieve price stability. Central banks were not born with independence, they had it thrust upon them – literally, in the case of Germany when, after the Second World War
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getting into an unsustainable position is tantamount to arguing that central banks should, on occasions, target the real equilibrium of the economy and not just price stability – a much deeper and more difficult question than that of whether a central bank should have a dual or a single mandate. The fundamental question
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desirability of inflation targeting have been raised by those who believe that central banks should focus at least as much on ‘financial stability’ as on ‘price stability’, meaning that monetary policy can and should try to affect much more than just short-run movements in inflation. The difficulty with this proposition is
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on saving and credit that is incompatible with an innovative market economy. Amid the post-crisis confusion about whether central banks should focus solely on price stability, or whether they should take responsibility for guiding the economy to a new equilibrium, or deal with potential ‘bubbles’ in asset prices, one might be
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is not a beast that can be killed once and for all. Success is a matter of the patient application of policies designed to maintain price stability. Central bankers are like doctors – they need to be on top of the latest technical developments, have several years of experience and a good bedside
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ruled out altogether. Societies have managed without central banks in the past. Before the crisis, central banking seemed rather simple. There was a single objective – price stability – and a successful framework within which to make decisions on interest rates – inflation targeting. It seemed a successful coping strategy. Communication became more important, and
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join the ERM in the 1980s was the belief that by linking their exchange rate to the Deutschmark they would inherit the same commitment to price stability as had been demonstrated by the Bundesbank over many years. But the mechanism broke down first in 1992, when the UK and Italy left it
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the mechanism was ineffective. It did so for two reasons. First, markets saw that countries did not in fact all have the same commitment to price stability; some, when push came to shove, showed themselves unwilling to pay the price to maintain an indefinite commitment to a fixed exchange rate against the
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and Prices by Michael Woodford (2003), which builds on the ideas of the Swedish economist Knut Wicksell one hundred years ago that the key to price stability lies in thinking about the appropriate path for future nominal interest rates. 21 The bill was introduced into the House on 8 July 2014. 22
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optimum currency area than considerations of trade and changes in competitiveness. Agreement on the objectives of monetary policy, and in particular on the importance of price stability, is essential to a happy union. Chari et al. (2013) have extended the economic calculus of monetary unions to include the benefits of associating with
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–8, 186, 247, 315, 322, 329, 330; adoption of (early 1990s), 7, 77, 167; current targets, 70, 170; and econometric models, 305–6; goal of price stability, 22, 71, 167–8, 207–8; and radical uncertainty, 171; two elements of, 168 innovation, 4, 17, 291, 354–5, 356, 365–6 insurance, 32
by Martin Wolf · 24 Nov 2015 · 524pp · 143,993 words
policy.22 It rejected the then highly influential Keynesian idea of discretionary macroeconomic stabilization from its inception, in favour of a central bank dedicated to price stability. While Germans have accepted a welfare state since the nineteenth century, under Erhardt’s influence they have also embraced the idea of market competition. One
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Fed chose debt over unemployment. Indeed, it is mandated to do so, because its task is to sustain the highest level of employment consistent with price stability (or, more precisely, stable and low inflation). Since the US has no exchange-rate policy and has been able to borrow freely in its own
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the private sector as suppliers of money. On the contrary, it reinforces that confusion. Third, the doctrine assumes that monetary policy can be targeted at price stability, while macroprudential policy is targeted at financial stability. More important, it is assumed that they will not get in each other’s way, with monetary
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the economy, in the medium term. Yet, while this diagnosis is persuasive, the policy recommendations are not. First, it is impossible to hit two targets – price stability and financial stability – with one instrument. Second, the natural rate of interest is unknown: attempts to use the rate of economic growth as a proxy
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money”, etc., then these things in themselves are neither good nor bad, they are simply the means to the desired ends of full employment and price stability.’53 So long as these policies do not generate excess demand, there is no reason to fear their inflationary effects. This does not mean no
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system from the economy and the economy from the financial system. In its former guise, macroprudential policy recognizes that a monetary policy designed to achieve price stability can encourage destabilizing developments in the financial system. The aim, then, is to prevent or at least reduce the undesirable consequences of such a development
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actions that curb lending. Macroprudential regulation borders on microprudential regulation at one end, and monetary policy at the other. In theory, targeting monetary policy at price stability and macroprudential policy at financial policy ought to work, at least in normal times. When interest rates are at the zero lower bound, however, the
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weaken the effectiveness of monetary policy, possibly making the zero lower bound a more frequent event. In short, the assumption that targeting monetary policy at price stability and macroprudential policy at financial stability will be easy is optimistic. The Need for Macroprudential Policy The argument for macroprudential policy is that a financial
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no way for a single country to deliver this, so long as it has an open capital account and a monetary policy oriented towards domestic price stability. This is particularly true for a country that issues a reserve currency: it effectively loses control over its exchange rate. So this brings us to
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it currently takes inflation-targeting quite seriously, it is not as obsessed with this one objective as the ECB, which has an overriding objective of ‘price stability’. This is partly a matter of law. It is also partly a matter of national and institutional culture. The Bank of Japan operated without an
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economic growth, which itself seems to be highly variable. Moreover, this estimate of the long-run natural rate is not necessarily the rate that generates price stability, as Wicksell assumed, in the presence of large short- to medium-run shocks. In fact, we have seen consistently large divergences between the real rate
by Adam Tooze · 13 Nov 2014 · 1,057pp · 239,915 words
American governments were inflicting on their populations. In any case, the reparations crisis of the spring of 1921 undid this temporary stabilization. After months of price stabilization, inflation resumed in June of that year and surged to double-digit figures in August. Nationalist economic opinion now insisted that excessive levels of reparations
by Benn Steil · 14 May 2013 · 710pp · 164,527 words
no interest in fixing exchange rates, and were strongly opposed to any return to the gold-exchange standard. They shared Roosevelt’s belief that domestic price stabilization was far more important to economic recovery. Among economists, London School of Economics professors Lionel Robbins and T. E. Gregory took a very different position
by Adam Lebor · 28 May 2013 · 438pp · 109,306 words
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