reserve currency
description: foreign currency held by monetary authorities as part of forex reserves
232 results
Our Dollar, Your Problem: An Insider’s View of Seven Turbulent Decades of Global Finance, and the Road Ahead
by Kenneth Rogoff · 27 Feb 2025 · 330pp · 127,791 words
loans to developing countries. The payouts, though, are not in SDR but in one of its constituent currencies, typically dollars. Instead, the SDR is a “reserve currency” that can only be held by governments in the form of accounts at the IMF. Even in this sense, it is still an accounting unit
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popularized the concept of U.S. dollar privilege, economists had already been debating for some time the benefits to the United States of being the reserve currency. Two splendid papers published in 1964, one by Chicago’s Robert Aliber and one by Walter Salant of the Brookings Institution, weighed the costs and
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benefits of being the world’s “reserve currency.”5 (As discussed in chapter 1, the global monetary setup was a bit different back then; the U.S. dollar, and the U.S. dollar
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seemed to be working for everyone, even if de Gaulle did not see it that way.) Aliber and Salant both emphasized that the dollar’s reserve-currency status—governments could hold the dollar in lieu of gold knowing that it could be converted—gave the United States broad scope to borrow from
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great need, not the somewhat lower interest rate in normal times, that constituted the crux of the benefit to the United States of issuing the reserve currency. A modern-day economist would emphasize the distinction between dealing with an idiosyncratic supply shock, such as the need to quickly increase military spending, and
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of exorbitant privilege that Giscard d’Estaing had in mind was far more sweeping than just the direct borrowing benefits accruing to the dollar’s reserve-currency status. After World War II, American private businesses and individuals had swept into Europe buying up businesses and building factories. While European governments had to
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a script. 5. As governor of the Bank of England, Carney proposed a virtual synthetic currency composed of multiple reserve currencies. See Jason Douglas, “BOE’s Carney Floats the Idea of a New, Virtual Reserve Currency,” Wall Street Journal, August 23, 2019. 6. See Charles Kindleberger, “The Politics of International Money and World Language
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University Press, 2012). 5. Robert Z. Aliber, “The Costs and Benefits of the U.S. Role as Reserve Currency Country,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 78, no. 3 (August 1964): 442–456. Walter A. Salant, “The Reserve Currency Role of the Dollar: Blessing or Burden to the United States?,” Review of Economics and Statistics 46
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, 72, 79, 86, 112, 113 repression, financial, 262–63, 277, 279 Reserve Bank of Australia, 322 n.9 Reserve Bank of New Zealand, 232 reserve currency, 176, 213 reserves, currency, 4, 47, 138, 156–57, 161 Reshevsky, Samuel, 23 Rey, Hélène, 166, 167, 168, 169, 222, 223 Road to Singapore, The, 205 Robinson, David
Money in the Metaverse: Digital Assets, Online Identities, Spatial Computing and Why Virtual Worlds Mean Real Business
by David G. W. Birch and Victoria Richardson · 28 Apr 2024 · 249pp · 74,201 words
another story) and then, after further technological developments in communications, to New York, which became the centre of world finance, with the dollar as the reserve currency. But the point is made: Giraudo observed that while geography and politics had a strong influence on the location of financial centres, the deciding element
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dollar will dominate because the fact is that most people around the world still want to hold dollars, given that the dollar is the global reserve currency, while few people have a desire to hold yuan (and no one wants to hold, for example, rubles). Public. Finally, there are stablecoins issued by
The Dream of Europe: Travels in the Twenty-First Century
by Geert Mak · 27 Oct 2021 · 722pp · 223,701 words
was perhaps the most important effect of the crisis. The euro missed out on a chance to take over from the dollar as the global reserve currency. After 2008 that opportunity was lost. For China, the long term meant something rather longer. So what had become of the ordinary European citizen amid
Gilded Rage: Elon Musk and the Radicalization of Silicon Valley
by Jacob Silverman · 9 Oct 2025 · 312pp · 103,645 words
to inflate the price of a digital token that, even after 15-plus years of searching, had no use case beyond speculation and being the reserve currency for global cybercrime. That the proposal happened to be completely against Bitcoin’s libertarian founding purpose, separating money from the state, was no small irony
Big Debt Crises
by Ray Dalio · 9 Sep 2018 · 782pp · 187,875 words
to cause foreign capital to pull back. This can happen for reasons unrelated to conditions in the domestic economy (e.g., cyclical conditions in a reserve currency country leads to a tightening in liquidity in that currency, or a financial crisis results in a pullback of capital, etc.). Also, a rise in
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Inflationary Deleveragings or Hyperinflations? While inflationary depressions are possible in all countries/currencies, they are far more likely in countries that: Don’t have a reserve currency (so there is not a global bias to hold their currency/debt as a store hold of wealth) Have low foreign-exchange reserves (the cushion
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the differences between the Weimar case study and the US Great Depression and 2007–2011 case studies, which are also examined in Part 2. Can reserve-currency countries that don’t have significant foreign-currency debt have inflationary depressions? While they are much less likely to have inflationary contractions that are as
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slowly and later in the deleveraging process, after a sustained and repeated overuse of stimulation to reverse deflationary deleveraging. Any country, including one with a reserve currency, can experience some movement out of its currency, which changes the severity of the trade-off between inflation and growth described earlier. If a
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permits much higher inflation in order to keep growth stronger by printing lots of money, it can further undermine demand for its currency, erode its reserve currency status (e.g., make investors view it as less of a store hold of wealth), and turn its deleveraging into an inflationary one. The Phases
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mentioned in the archetype template, while inflationary depressions are possible in all countries/currencies, they are most common in countries that: Don’t have a reserve currency: So there is not a global bias to hold their currency/debt as a store hold of wealth Have low foreign exchange reserves: So there
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end of the war, the German economy met all of these conditions. Losing the war meant that the mark was not going to be the reserve currency of the postwar era. A large stock of external debts had been acquired, and it was very likely that the Allies would force Germany to
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to service it existed around the world, a global dollar shortage emerged during the first half of 1931. Classically, there is a squeeze in a reserve currency that is widely lent by foreign financial institutions when there is a collapse of credit creation in that currency. Although other currencies faced a shortage
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debt is a short cash position—i.e., a commitment to deliver cash that one doesn’t have. Because the dollar is the world’s reserve currency, and because of the dollar surplus recycling that has taken place over the past few years…lots of dollar denominated debt has been built up
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and treasury bonds declined while the dollar collapsed and commodities surged. This action is consistent with a loss of faith in the US as a reserve currency, and, if it continues, puts the US economy and financial system even more at risk.” –BDO September 24, 2008 Economic Activity Is Slowing across Many
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increasing government supply with tight liquidity; dealers can’t finance inventory, hedge funds can’t borrow, foreigners are losing confidence in the dollar as a reserve currency, and the desire for cash is trumping all forms of risk, even the yield curve risk of a treasury bond.” –BDO October 8, 2008 A
The Battle of Bretton Woods: John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter White, and the Making of a New World Order
by Benn Steil · 14 May 2013 · 710pp · 164,527 words
believed to be at constant work. Keynes would apply his insight in the design of a new global monetary architecture, built around a new international reserve currency—one that would be a threat to the global supremacy of the U.S. dollar and which White was determined to keep from seeing the
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an international conference take place.”85 The question of how to ensure that the dollar permanently supplanted the pound as the global trade, financing, and reserve currency was to occupy him for the remainder of his time at Treasury. On the European front, 1938 was to prove a pivotal year in boosting
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looser system economized on the use of gold and made its money more elastic to the actual needs of business. Those who insisted that a reserve currency need take the form of a physical commodity were misguidedly backing “a relic of a time when governments were less trustworthy in these matters than
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be a beneficiary, rather than victim, of hot money flows in a crisis. The key is that it happens to issue the world’s dominant reserve currency. Keynes acknowledged the success of the prewar gold standard, but maintained that it was an anomaly. He pointed out that when London was the chief
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identical, their cures could not have been more different. Triffin harked directly back to Keynes’s “bancor” alternative to the White Plan: a new international reserve currency managed by the IMF. He suggested some bureaucratic safeguards against the potential inflationary bias of the scheme, but was otherwise satisfied simply to quote Keynes
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agree on a new mechanism for stabilizing exchange rates to be a bad thing. Ten years prior, while Triffin had been advocating a new international reserve currency and Rueff a return to the classical gold standard, University of Chicago economist Milton Friedman had been preaching to Congress the benefits of a floating
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farsighted.” He called on the IMF to take the lead in boosting the all-but-forgotten SDR—to make it into a true “super-sovereign reserve currency,” using the model of Keynes’s bancor.37 Xinhua, after blasting the United States for its “debt addiction” in 2011, repeated Zhou’s call for
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a “new, stable, and secured global reserve currency.”38 China, though a huge creditor of the United States, is, unlike the United States in the 1940s, in no position to orchestrate a Bretton
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incentive for central banks to hold much more of them. Paradoxically, although it was Keynes who argued for, and White who fiercely resisted, a supranational reserve currency in the run-up to Bretton Woods, such a currency would have far greater viability in a world dominated by state trading—of the sort
Tower of Basel: The Shadowy History of the Secret Bank That Runs the World
by Adam Lebor · 28 May 2013 · 438pp · 109,306 words
(IMF) and an International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (BRD), which became part of the World Bank. The IMF would monitor exchange rates and lend reserve currencies to indebted countries. The new bank would provide loans to underdeveloped countries. Bretton Woods also gave its name to a new international currency exchange system
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continuing drain on Britain’s economy of its empire and the country’s general economic malaise made sterling increasingly vulnerable. But sterling was also a reserve currency, especially across Britain’s current and former dominions. Thus sterling, like the price of gold, had to be stabilized. The BIS was not a lender
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member financial policies, 245–246 purpose, xix–xxi, 5, 20, 42–43, 53–54 Reichsbank gold account in, 85 rescue packages, coordination of, 206–207 reserve currency rescue, coordination of, 193 as safe haven from creditors, 261–262 secrecy, tradition of, xv–xviii, 259 social responsibility, need for, 268–269 transnational economy
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), 6 Young Plan (1929), 11–13 “Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of this Government in the Murder of Jews” (Morgenthau’s staff), 160 Reserve currency rescue, coordination of by BIS, 193 Retinger, Joseph, 173 Revelstoke, Lord (John Baring), 11, 12 Reynolds, Jackson, 18 Ribbontrop, Joachim von, 90 Rijksbank, 108 Ripley
Money Free and Unfree
by George A. Selgin · 14 Jun 2017 · 454pp · 134,482 words
the point of causing inflation.29 It would not be long before events proved Owen’s confidence misplaced, while vindicating Root’s pessimism. Although Federal Reserve currency did indeed prove more elastic than national bank notes had been, its elasticity was far from being the sort needed to achieve financial stability. Although
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’s anticipated role as a reserve or “key” currency. After Great Britain devalued the pound in November 1967, it effectively ceased to be an important reserve currency. 17. See Bordo (1993: 39, Chart 1.10). The claim of several authorities (cited in Bordo 1993: 68) that “the growth of the monetary gold
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(31 May): http://sabew.org/2011/05/let’s-get-going-on-the-real-story-of-the-financial-crisis-securitized-banking. Friedman, M. (1953) “Commodity Reserve Currency.” In Essays in Positive Economics, 204–50. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ——— (1960) A Program for Monetary Stability. New York: Fordham University Press. ——— (1961a) “Real
The End of Alchemy: Money, Banking and the Future of the Global Economy
by Mervyn King · 3 Mar 2016 · 464pp · 139,088 words
repay. But the political commitment of emerging economies to their export-led growth strategy was extremely strong. And the US dollar – as the world’s reserve currency – was a currency in which China, and other emerging markets, were happy to invest, not least because its own currency, the renminbi, was not convertible
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War Risk Insurance (1914), 200; Constitution, 286; Dodd-Frank Reform (2010), 40, 260; dollar and gold link, 73, 195, 200–1; dollar as world’s reserve currency, 25, 28, 34; ‘double liability’ (1865-1934), 107–8; ‘free banking’ era, 60–2, 77, 161; Glass-Steagall Act (1933), 23, 98, 260; gold reserves
Crashed: How a Decade of Financial Crises Changed the World
by Adam Tooze · 31 Jul 2018 · 1,066pp · 273,703 words
that anti-inflation politics were the ECB’s only ambition. It also wanted to promote Europe as a financial center and the euro as a reserve currency, and that meant actively developing European debt markets. Specifically, it meant importing to Europe the American model of a repo market for government debt. Being
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had also come to deliver a less friendly message. The dollar, Kudrin declared, was in danger of forfeiting its status as the “universal or absolute reserve currency.”34 It was simply too uncertain in value. “Whether it is the U.S. dollar exchange rate or the U.S. trade balance, it definitely
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causes concerns with regard to the dollar’s status as a reserve currency.” Eight years on from the humiliation of 1998, when Russia’s finance minister spoke, the markets listened. Kudrin’s words were enough to send the
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drama of this innovation. Responding to the crisis in an improvised fashion, the Fed had reaffirmed the role of the dollar as the world’s reserve currency and established America’s central bank as the indispensable central node in the dollar network. Given the even vaster volume of daily transactions in global
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a global chorus of criticism. Advocates of reform argued that at the root of global financial instability was the overreliance on the dollar as a reserve currency. This conferred on America an exorbitant privilege, which it exploited irresponsibly, running up deficits and borrowing abroad. In 2009 the head of China’s central
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, “When we look back 10 years from now, we will see 2008 as a fundamental rupture. I am not saying the dollar will lose its reserve currency status, but it will become relative.”35 Two months later, President Sarkozy declared ahead of the G20 summit, “I am leaving tomorrow for Washington to
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on the currency question.4 Over the summer, with the price of oil at all-time highs, Medvedev had been pushing for a diversification of reserve currencies and a greater use of the ruble. Days before arriving in France, Medvedev had given a speech to the Russian parliament in which he drew
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1944. It was thanks to America’s overweening power at the end of World War II that the dollar had been established as the global reserve currency. Ever since, America had been free to spend at will while accumulating huge deficits. To ensure true stability, as John Maynard Keynes had argued for
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Freedom of Information Act to Evaluate the Federal Reserve Banks,” American University Law Review 60 (2010), 213. 33. J. Anderlini, “China Calls for a New Reserve Currency,” Financial Times, March 23, 2009; and UN, “Report of the Commission of Experts of the President of the United Nations General Assembly on Reforms of
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The Shifts and the Shocks: What We've Learned--And Have Still to Learn--From the Financial Crisis
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The Alchemists: Three Central Bankers and a World on Fire
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The Deficit Myth: Modern Monetary Theory and the Birth of the People's Economy
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The Future of Money
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