telerobotics Concepts

Our Robots, Ourselves: Robotics and the Myths of Autonomy

by David A. Mindell · 12 Oct 2015 · 265pp · 74,807 words

not stated, clearly the navy would have an interest in surveying shipwrecks from other people’s navies as well. Robert Ballard’s early conception of telerobotic presence in the deep ocean, 1981. Argo, the sled suspended beneath an oceanographic vessel, scans the mid-ocean ridge while the remote robot Jason performs

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Argo. While Ballard was prospecting ONR for support, the agency suggested he make an alliance with MIT, where ONR was already supporting a researcher in telerobotics. Tom Sheridan was an MIT professor with an unusual pedigree. He had been a student of the behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner as well as

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the slow, graceful, and critical positioning of all these elements in space and time. He considered the astronauts as fine links coupling the large human/telerobotic system: “we are just eyes and hands and we’re mission control’s extension.” Shuttle pilot Ken Bowersox called the mission “arts and crafts for

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, whereas robotic missions take longer but have fewer time constraints. Latencies in communications stretch out the duration by making the act-and-respond cycle of telerobotic manipulation especially slow. Whipple encountered a subtle trade-off between cost, complexity, time, and the presence of a human or robot in the loop, “a

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arm: mobile eyes and hands linked to extended chains of expertise. In fact, Hodges, who still works with Schmitt, describes the Apollo work as “really telerobotics” because “it was a science back room here on earth that was using the astronauts as tools to try and generate data for analysis here

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latency of the lunar distances, barely a few seconds, makes this kind of operation particularly rich on the moon. Yet NASA has never sent a telerobotic rover there (though privately funded projects are currently aiming to do just that). This spectrum of lunar field geology—from scientist explorers to astronaut technicians

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data and imagery, makes decisions, sends commands to the rovers, and sees the results of their actions, in Clancey’s words, “a daily cycle of telerobotic activity, evaluation, and programming.” That the whole cycle takes a day instead of the milliseconds that it would take if one were hammering on a

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a single space shuttle mission. Clancey interprets Squyres’s comments on speed to reflect a measure of the scientists’ sense of presence in the landscape. Telerobotics can provide presence, but at some cost—“It distances the scientists from a landscape they would prefer to walk through,” Clancey says. The very success

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of the telerobotic work cycle leaves the scientists wanting more—the rover’s affordances of presence are “tolerable but not satisfying,” similar to the limits of presence felt

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Opportunity, can provide a sufficient sense in such a foreign environment? Lester flags a caveat that, for him, makes space exploration “poorly matched to terrestrial telerobotic pursuits.” His caveat is latency—the communications delays for control signals and data. This latency, Lester argues, makes any sense of presence on Mars “downright

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total amount of mass from earth as required by the expensive and dangerous forays down onto the surface. Lester and Thronson argue for “on-orbit telerobotics” wherein astronauts in orbit around Mars or some other body control robots down below on the surface. “Exploration derived from human presence may well not

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a dramatic and salient example of the relationships among space, time, task complexity, robotics, and human experience. In low earth orbit, with relatively low latencies, telerobotic systems can accomplish a great deal through direct manipulation. On the moon, with only slightly longer delays, teleoperation offers great potential not yet explored by

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explorations have shown how the three modes evolve together, feeding back and cross-pollinating. The new Alvin includes software developed for autonomous vehicles; airliners resemble telerobots that you sit in. The Apollo lunar landings were not simply flown by heroic pilots, but tightly linked to ground controllers and software algorithms that

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(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 129. “best done by one or two geologists”: Comments by Kip Hodges at Exploration Telerobotics Symposium, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, May 2–3, 2012, http://telerobotics.gsfc.nasa.gov, accessed July 3, 2014. Historian Naomi Oreskes points out: Naomi Oreskes, The Rejection of Continental Drift: Theory

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well as a trained geologist”: Interview with geologist, March 2005, notes in the author’s possession. describes the Apollo work as “really telerobotics”: Comments by Kip Hodges at Exploration Telerobotics Symposium. Head emphasizes it was also important to turn loose the astronauts: Jim Head and Dave Scott, discussion with the author at

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of synergistic operation”: Clancey, Working on Mars, 58. a “fundamental fallacy”: Comments by Jim Bell and Jake Bleacher at Exploration Telerobotics Symposium, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, May 2–3, 2012, http://telerobotics.gsfc.nasa.gov/, accessed July 3, 2014. Also see Clancey, Working on Mars, 129–37. One of MER’s

Mission to Mars: My Vision for Space Exploration

by Buzz Aldrin and Leonard David · 1 Apr 2013 · 183pp · 51,514 words

was the expensive proposition of hurling people and their brainpower there. Today it’s no longer the only choice. Advances in telerobotics can plant human cognition and dexterity on the moon. Telerobotics is an explosive growth industry here on Earth. We plunge to great ocean depths using human-controlled automatons. Robotic equipment

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from perilous mines. Our skies are increasingly dotted with craft that are winging their way under telecontrol. Even high-precision surgery is being done via telerobotics, carried out by a doctor distant from the patient. Human cognition and dexterity can be extended to lunar territory at the speed of light via

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telerobotics. Safely tucked inside a high-tech habitat at an Earth-moon Lagrangian point, space expeditionary crews can teleoperate systems that are deployed on the moon.

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By demonstrating telerobotic skills at the Hawaii-situated base, processes would be validated in preparation for renewed human activity on the moon. This matchless center will motivate and

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, the extremely “radio quiet” far side of the moon presents a superlative environment for sensitive telescopic observations. Matching Earth-moon Lagrangian points with astronauts operating telerobotic hardware allows the assembly of infrastructure on the moon, carrying out surface science, scouting out and unearthing important lunar resources. This capability is an innovative

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out at the Hawaii-based International Lunar Research Base prototype, a crew situated at the Earth-moon L2 position would assemble this permanent facility via telerobotics, piece by piece, module by module. America’s return to the moon is one that is robotic, to offer infrastructure and leadership. This pathway eventually

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the first human crew to arrive on Mars. That’s my judgment. My theory right now is that somebody piecing together hardware on Mars through telerobotics on Phobos is the right person to later lead the first landing mission on the red planet. My approach may well be a contested way

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helps limit the challenges, cost, and risk of placing humans on perilous surfaces or within deep gravity wells. Let me point out the advances in telerobotics here on Earth. Human cognition and dexterity are already reaching the deepest oceans, pulling out resources from dangerous mines, performing high-precision surgery from a

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. More recently, recall the plucky Spirit and Opportunity Mars rovers run by NASA, precursors to the now-on-Mars Curiosity mega-robot. Telepresence, low-latency telerobotics, and human spaceflight are leading to redefining what constitutes an “explorer.” A leading champion of exploration telepresence is Dan Lester of the Department of Astronomy

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.4) High-quality telepresence from an Earth-moon Lagrangian point allows a high degree of human cognition and dexterity to be expressed via lunar surface telerobotic surrogates. Lester sees even more significant advantages at Mars, due to the vastly longer two-way latency between Earth and the red planet. Putting humans

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close enough to an exploration site to ensure cognition—that is, in many respects, what human spaceflight is for. What is more, telepresence/on-orbit telerobotics is not destination specific. We’ll first need to earn our telepresence stripes at the moon and on Mars, using these technologies to explore, scout

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not offer sparse living conditions. It should be regal, well thought out, fail-safe; and it should be assembled with care, thanks to distantly operated telerobotics. Teleoperation at Mars will prepare us. Mars simply tops the list of future destinations to explore. There are plenty of spots ripe for human cognition

The Turing Option

by Harry Harrison and Marvin Minsky · 2 Jan 1992 · 532pp · 140,406 words

cabinet. "Most of the control circuitry and memory for Robin-1 is in there. It communicates by infrared with its mechanical interface, that telerobot over there." The telerobot did not look like any robot J.J. had ever seen. It was on the floor, a sort of upside-down treelike thing that

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many ways better than you or I," Brian replied. "Robin, catch!" Brian picked up a box of paper clips—and threw them all toward the telerobot. The thing whirred in a blur of motion as it smoothly unfolded and rearranged most of its tendrils into hundreds of little handlike claws. As

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that working already." Brian went to the terminal on the bench and brought up the control program, then touched the keys. On the bench the telerobot stirred and hummed. There was a rustle as the circuitry activated the joints, causing them to straighten. Irises opened on the two metal spheres, revealing

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me. When do I get to meet your AI?" "Right now. But first I'll have to wake Sven up." Brain pointed to the motionless telerobot. "Wake up or turn on?" Ben asked. "The computer stays on all the time, of course. But the new memory management scheme turned out to

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you think of that—the prototype AI we found inside the Bug-Off machine?" "Of course." As Brian walked over to the operation console the telerobot turned its eyes to follow him. "However, in Bug-Off's case, the armored container was to conceal the fact that an AI was operating

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?" "I am already occupied on that task." Brian got a high-density battery from stock and checked its charge. There was a rustle as the telerobot came up behind him and looked over his shoulder. "We better top up the charge," Brian said. "If you will take care of that I

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learning things fast. Sven waited until the new battery was in place before it spoke again. "Have you considered installing an atomic battery in my telerobot unit? It would increase mobility and guarantee against power failures." "What? Now just hold it right there. Two things rule out any chance of an

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a cube the size of my fingernail. We could get rid of that console and rack of electronics and put the whole system inside your telerobot. Make you completely autonomous, independent. That's what you are suggesting, aren't you?" "Yes. You will agree that my physical hardware is very clumsy

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the capitalist system. In order to make money one must have something to sell. A product of some kind. I have developed that product." The telerobot reached out and lightly touched the telephone on Brian's belt. "We will sell a telephone service." "Sven," Brian said slowly and carefully, "you amaze

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her yet at the number she had given him. No, it was still too early. There was a rustle in the hallway and Sven's telerobot appeared in the doorway. "Buna dimineata. Cum te simti azi?" it said. "What?" "That is Rumanian for 'Good morning, how are you today?'" "All of

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still in the racks and consoles. As if to emphasize this point Sven used the loudspeaker in the rack for conversation while they worked. The telerobot was silent and unmoving when the last installation was completed to their mutual satisfaction. "I have reached a decision about a matter we discussed some

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time ago," Sven said. "What's that?" "Identity. Very soon now I will be a single entity in what is now the telerobot extension. It will be a most delicate matter to transfer all my units, subunits, K-lines and programs to the new memory." "We can be

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the laconic answer. Sven was never one for vacillating. Brian had already fixed in place the fiber-optic cables that connected the consoles and the telerobot. Nothing more was needed. There was absolutely no evidence that the transfer was happening—except that it took a long time. The problem was not

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hours went by with no apparent results. Brian went to the toilet, had just returned by way of the fridge with cold drink, when the telerobot moved for the first time. It reached up with conjoined manipulators and unplugged the cables. "Finished?" Brian asked. The

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telerobot and the speaker on the rack spoke in unison. "Yes," they said, then were silent. In continuing silence the cables were reconnected, for only a

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few seconds, then removed again. Brian realized what had happened. The telerobot was working all right—but so was the original system in the console. "A decision has been reached," the

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said in unison. "However, we are not the same anymore." Slightly more out of sync with each passing instant. The silent communication continued; then the telerobot spoke alone. "I am Sven. The MI now resident in the console is Sven-2." "Whatever you guys say. Any control problems, Sven?" "None that

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. I'll hook up a video camera. Wire it up under your control so you can see what is happening. And I'll order another telerobot at once." "That will be satisfactory. I will devote the time until it arrives in a detailed study of the Bug-Off brain." Brian mounted

Case for Mars

by Robert Zubrin · 27 Jun 2011 · 437pp · 126,860 words

operating on Mars, the terrestrial second is no more useful a unit of timekeeping than the terrestrial day, and must yield to its Martian counterpart. TELEROBOTICS: EXTENDING THE REACH OF THE CREW For safety reasons, while two members of the crew (a scientist and a mechanic) are out on a rover

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could use part of their time to explore. This they will be able to do, provided that the expedition is supplied with a contingent of telerobots. Martian telerobots would be small wheeled or treaded roving vehicles equipped with TV cameras, microscopes and other scientific instruments, manipulator arms, and a radio. Controlled from

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the Mars base via either shortwave radio or through an aereosynchronous relay satellite, these telerobots could be driven rapidly by remote control, as the radio link time delay would be insignificant (the Earth—Mars radio time delay, up to 40

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minutes round trip, prevents effective telerobotic operations conducted from Earth). The telerobots could be deployed by the rover crews as they travel, allowing the base crews to explore in greater detail various sites that rover

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crews identify as interesting but had no time to investigate at length themselves. The telerobots could also be used to probe into places too small or risky for humans, such as caverns or narrow crevices. However, the base crews could

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also deploy some telerobots themselves, lofting them up on balloons and then bringing them down to land thousands of kilometers away. (A balloon on Mars could be expected to

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, but provided that the wind patterns of Mars have been mapped out in advance by missions like MAP, the path the balloon-borne telerobot takes could well be predicted. As the telerobot flies, its cameras can be used to send real-time aerial images to the base crew, who, looking through the

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eyes, will be able to choose the best time and place to land the system. Upon landing, the telerobot could either release the balloon, thereby committing itself to its selected landing region for life, or, if the winds are light, it could attempt to

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secure the balloon’s anchor line to a rock formation. In the latter case, the telerobot could then leave the balloon and explore the area for a few hours, but then reattach itself to the balloon, release anchor, and take off

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to visit still another more distant site. Neither cliffs nor canyons, nor even small mountains will stand in the way of the flying telerobots. Deployed and controlled without time delay from the first manned Mars base camp, they will make vast regions of the planet accessible to scientific exploration

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. Having a telerobot deployed at a distant site is the next best thing to being there. But in this case next best is a distant second best; to

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to carry 27 percent of the propellant with you. That is, consider a small rocket hopping vehicle that takes off and lands repeatedly, delivering its telerobot cargo to a series of chosen target sites separated by impassable terrain. It won’t need to carry all its propellant. Instead, it can refuel

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in the bottom of a bowl is in stable equilibrium, because if pushed, it will roll back to its starting point. STR: Solar thermal rocket. Telerobotic operation: Remote control of some device, such as a small Mars rover equipped with TV cameras, by human operators at a significant distance away. Thrust

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. See Extra vehicular activity (EVA) Exploration of Mars, 139–170, 218 communications, 156–159 navigation, 160–162 propellant production, 148–156 surface mobility, 141–147 telerobotics, 164–166 timekeeping, 162–164 Extra vehicular activity (EVA), 147 Extreme environments, life in, 34–35 Ferrous oxide, 220 Field scientist, 85–86 Flyby trajectory

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, 207 early observations of, 24–26 exploration of, 139–170, 218 communications, 156–159 navigation, 160–162 propellant production, 148–156 surface mobility, 141–147 telerobotics, 164–166 timekeeping, 163–164 ionosphere of, 157–159 Kepler’s study of, 22–24 Loweliian vision of, 26–27 Mariner program and, 27–30

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(STRs) STV. See Space Transfer Vehicle (STV) program Sulfides, 311 Sulfur, 220 Superoxides, 33 Surface mobility, 141–147 Synthesis Group report, 66 Syrtis Major, 25 Telerobotics, 164–166 Temperature of Mars, 27–28, 57, 129, 136, 175, 249–263, 271–272 Terraforming Mars, 70, 71, 218, 238, 247–272 calculations, 251

The Great Convergence: Information Technology and the New Globalization

by Richard Baldwin · 14 Nov 2016 · 606pp · 87,358 words

would be the development of really good substitutes for people traveling to provide manual services. This is called “telerobotics” and it involves people in one place operating robots that perform tasks in another place. Telerobotics exists, but it is still expensive and the robots are not very flexible. FIGURE 3: Summary of

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the design and testing of new products as well as their distribution and after-sales service. Face-to-Face Costs, the Virtual Presence Revolution and Telerobotics The third separation cost—the cost of face-to-face interaction—is also likely to persist on its downward path. More specifically, really good ICT

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, but it is not unimaginable. Cisco has already demonstrated a beta version. Interested readers can find videos on this by browsing for “Holographic Video Conferencing.” Telerobotics is another important trend. After all, moving people is not just about people-to-people meetings, it is also about people-to-machine interactions. Keeping

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of the type used today in operating rooms, technicians could conduct inspections or undertake repairs from remote locations. As with telepresence, the widespread use of telerobotics is constrained by high costs. But if it is possible to develop systems that allow surgeons to fix people at a distance, surely it is

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traveling to be in the same room to exchange brain services (telepresence). The second is really good substitutes for people traveling to provide manual services (telerobotics). Before looking at what the breakthroughs might look like, it is worth backing up a bit to think about what offshoring really is from an

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low-wage Mexican labor services instead of high-cost U.S. labor services. Offshoring, in other words, is a means of arbitraging international wage differences. Telerobotics, Telepresence, and “Virtual Immigration” Such arbitrage via offshoring is not possible for all activities. For the offshoring option to work, the firm needs some way

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laborers. For example, the only way to use Mexican labor services to tend to a U.S. garden is to have Mexicans in the garden. Telerobotics could change all this for manual workers. It would allow workers based in developing nations to provide labor services inside developed nations without actually being

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third unbundling is likely to mean that labor services are physically unbundled from laborers. Consequences Relaxation of the face-to-face constraint via telepresence and telerobotics would make it much easier to separate the physical application of labor services from the physical presence of laborers. This is likely to produce two

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for arbitraging this imbalance are abundant. As wages rise in the nations that have benefited the most so far (above all China), and telepresence and telerobotics get better, firms with advanced know-how may increasingly leverage their knowledge with low-cost labor in, say, Africa or South America. Chinese firms may

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service providers and service buyers to be physically in the same place at the same time. Really cheap, reliable, and ubiquitous virtual presence technology and telerobotics would break the necessity. Nontraded services would become tradeable. In short, the third unbundling could do to the service sector what the second unbundling already

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of moving ideas when the ICT revolution came along. In the future, the main driver may be transformative reductions in the cost of telepresence and telerobotics triggered by the virtual presence revolution. If I am right, it will be important for governments and businesses to start rethinking globalization. Notes PART I

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R11 (Rising Eleven) Austrian-Hungarian Empire, 55. See also Europe automation and robots, 164–165, 199–200, 205, 206, 287–288, 291. See also telepresence/telerobotics Autor, David, 295 Avionyx, 268 backward and forward linkages (demand-side/supply-side), 174, 187–188, 208–209 Bairoch, Paul, 54 Balassa, Bela, 263–264

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and, 13; offshoring and, 216; Phases and, 113; physical presence and, 98; policies and, 239, 240, 272; transportation and, 5. See also migrations, human; telepresence/telerobotics; three-cascading-constraints view multiple equilibria, 254–256, 255f, 256–257, 258f, 266–267 NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 75, 135 Naisbitt, John, 283

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(information and communication technology); IT (Information Technology); moving ideas telecommunications, 82, 84f, 121, 130, 151. See also telegraph telegraph, 53, 121 telephones, 121, 130 telepresence/telerobotics, 10, 297–298 textile-mill jobs, 236–237 Thailand, 72, 87, 89, 90f, 159, 188, 250, 252–253f, 274. See also I6 three-cascading-constraints

Protocol: how control exists after decentralization

by Alexander R. Galloway · 1 Apr 2004 · 287pp · 86,919 words

and Flesh: The Evolution of Man: Technology Takes Over, Ollivier Dyens, 2001 The Visual Mind, edited by Michele Emmer, 1994 The Robot in the Garden: Telerobotics and Telepistemology in the Age of the Internet, edited by Ken Goldberg, 2000 Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion, Oliver Grau, 2003 Leonardo Almanac, edited

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, the tree. So to equate the Web with the rhizome, one must argue against those who describe 18. Machiko Kusahara, “Presence, Absence, and Knowledge in Telerobotic Art,” in The Robot in the Garden, ed. Ken Goldberg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000), p. 200. 19. Maurizio Lazzarato, “New Forms of Production and Circulation

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.nettime.org. Chapter 7 212 Web site speciﬁcity. Marina Gržinić has commented interestingly on this fact in her essay “Exposure Time, the Aura, and Telerobotics” where she argues that the very limitations of new media technology, what she describes as the “delays in transmission-time, busy signals from service providers

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you will never forgive me for. I am a hacker, and this is my manifesto.13 12. Marina Gržinić, “Exposure Time, the Aura, and Telerobotics,” in The Robot in the Garden, ed. Ken Goldberg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000). 13. See http://www.iit.edu/~beberg/manifesto.html. Internet Art 213

Makers at Work: Folks Reinventing the World One Object or Idea at a Time

by Steven Osborn · 17 Sep 2013 · 310pp · 34,482 words

, everyone has access to it. I have a personal mantra and OpenROV is a tool to help fulfill that mantra, which is that I believe telerobotics holds huge potential as a tool for exploration. I feel like it’s my duty to help the world realize that potential. And that specific

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thing has been a very important driving force. Even before OpenROV, I was building telerobots with the same intention: to popularize telerobotics for exploration. So by making it open source, I think I am able to affect more people. Look at how Arduino works

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this is something I could do the rest of my life. It was really cool to be exploring things in a different place, you know. Telerobotics exploration, which has been my mantra. It just reinforced that that’s what I wanted to do. Certainly that trip to the Nemo 16 and

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been seen by mankind is at the heart of what drives me personally. I’d love ROVs to be able to explore the deep ocean telerobotically. I’d really like to learn most about the things that we’ve never seen before. In other words, I don’t want to know

Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight

by David A. Mindell · 3 Apr 2008 · 377pp · 21,687 words

controls. The Mars rovers named Spirit and Opportunity that captured public imagination in recent years, for example, are less ‘‘robots’’ acting as autonomous agents than ‘‘telerobots’’ responding to commands from the earth and providing data for ground controllers, scientists, and the public to experience a foreign world from afar. Similarly, the

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one in Tom Sheridan, an MIT assistant professor with expertise in mechanical engineering and psychology who would come to define ideas in supervisory control and telerobotics. The group eventually grew to about thirty people. They began with traditional aircraft controls, giving the spacecraft hand controllers and throttles, then adding the gyroscopes

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, 57–58 353 landers and, 235, 240 orbiters and, 202 Apollo 8 and, 179 submarine, 268 astronauts and, 160 surgical, 268 digital computers and, 87 telerobots and, 15–16, 161 Gemini and, 83–84 manual, 160 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and, 267 Rockets, 6, 33. See also Spaceflight Mercury and, 83

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guidance systems and, 97–109, 112–114 symbolism and, 11–13 ICBMs and, 97 systems engineering and, 36–41 lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR) decision and, telerobots and, 15 111–112 Mars probe and, 99–101 transistors and, 98–99, 125–127 unmanned missiles and, 18–19 Mueller and, 133–136 optics

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issues and, 114–119 vacuum tubes and, 130 Teleprinters, 109 pilot induced oscillation and, 50–51 Telerobots, 15 Polaris submarine and, 97–99 Telescopes, 100, 114–119, 169 Program Evaluation and Review Technique Tenhoff, Ray, 29 (PERT) and, 98 TERRAIN, 148 project

Moon Rush: The New Space Race

by Leonard David · 6 May 2019

well. The Gateway’s opportunities for science and technology research are numerous, in areas including engineering interactions with the lunar surface through sample return and telerobotics, as well as basic science discoveries in astrophysics, heliophysics, and Earth science. The U.S. civilian space agency is on a pathway to start construction

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duplicate how Earthlike planets orbiting distant stars might appear to future astronomical instruments. From its unique vantage point, the Gateway can permit astronaut operation of telerobots—semiautonomous robots that can probe the youngest lunar craters from a distance on the Moon’s terrain. Those human-controlled robots can probe the Moon

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and exploration sites on the Moon, among them the Schrödinger basin, which is within the South Pole–Aitken basin. In this situation, Gateway crewmembers would telerobotically drive a rover and collaborate with Earth mission controllers as it pursues its scientific explorations. In that type of venture, a robotic ascent vehicle will

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NASA Ames Roverscape outdoor test bed. These tests represented the first fully interactive, remote operation of a planetary rover by astronauts in space. Low-latency telerobotics will enhance and extend human reach, enabling astronauts to be present on planetary surfaces without enduring the hardships of actually surviving on those planets. The

The Case for Space: How the Revolution in Spaceflight Opens Up a Future of Limitless Possibility

by Robert Zubrin · 30 Apr 2019 · 452pp · 126,310 words

exploration. A key goal will be to travel to a permanently shadowed crater and, making use of power beamed to them from the base, use telerobots to mine water ice. Hauling this treasure back to the base in their trailer, the astronauts will feed the water into the electrolysis/refrigeration unit

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small set of compressors and automated chemical processing unit, and a few small scientific rovers. As soon as the craft lands successfully, the truck is telerobotically driven a few hundred meters away from the site, and the reactor is deployed to provide power to the compressors and chemical processing unit. The

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reusable two-stage-to-orbit launch vehicle with a payload capacity of 150 tons being developed by the SpaceX company. Formerly known as the BFR. telerobotic operation: Remote control of some device, such as a small Mars rover equipped with video cameras, by human operators at a significant distance away. ton

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, 269 resources as a function of technology, 303–304 vision of for the year 3000, 320–21 Teflon as a space-program spin-off, 284 telerobotic operations, 70, 102, 344 telescopes, gaining knowledge through use of, 250–51, 253, 256. See also specific telescopes (i.e., Hubble Space Telescope, Origins Space