Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World's First Digital Weapon
by Kim Zetter · 11 Nov 2014 · 492pp · 153,565 words
Case of the Centrifuges 1. Early Warning 2. 500 Kilobytes of Mystery 3. Natanz 4. Stuxnet Deconstructed 5. Springtime for Ahmadinejad 6. Digging for Zero Days 7. Zero-Day Paydays 8. The Payload 9. Industrial Controls Out of Control 10. Precision Weapon 11. A Digital Plot Is Hatched 12. A New Fighting Domain 13
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genius. Not only was it using a skillful rootkit to cloak itself and make it invisible to antivirus engines, it was using a shrewd zero-day exploit to propagate from machine to machine—an exploit that attacked a function so fundamental to the Windows operating system, it put millions of computers
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seal the intruders out, while antivirus firms like Ulasen’s add signatures to their scanners to detect any exploits that try to attack the vulnerabilities. Zero-day exploits, however, aren’t ordinary exploits but are the hacking world’s most prized possession because they attack holes that are still unknown to
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UPX—short for “Ultimate Packer for eXecutables”—that was easily identified and eliminated. Given the sophisticated nature of the rest of the threat—the zero-day exploit and the stolen digital certificates—it seemed an odd choice for Stuxnet’s creators to make. So O’Murchu assumed their primary reason for
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’s military. 44 International Institute for Strategic Studies, Iran’s Strategic Weapons Programmes: A Net Assessment (London: Routledge, 2005), 33. CHAPTER 6 DIGGING FOR ZERO DAYS It was a Friday evening in late August, and Liam O’Murchu was celebrating his thirty-third birthday at a swanky rooftop lounge in Venice
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connections. Based on this, it appeared the attackers were targeting systems they knew were not connected to the internet and, given the unprecedented number of zero-day exploits they used to do it, they must have been aiming for a high-value, high-security target. But this roundabout way of reaching
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wanted without displaying any warnings or asking for an actual administrator’s approval. 2 Microsoft and Kaspersky Lab began publishing information about the three other zero-day vulnerabilities in mid-September. 3 A hard-coded password is one that the software maker embeds in their code so that the system can
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eventually get caught. 15 The attackers could have retrieved the log remotely from an infected system that contacted their command servers. CHAPTER 7 ZERO-DAY PAYDAYS Stuxnet’s zero-day exploits raised a lot of troubling questions about the burgeoning role of governments in the secret sale and use of such exploits—questions that
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in public debate, despite evidence that the practice is creating dangerous vulnerabilities for corporations, critical infrastructure, and individual computer users alike. Although the market for zero-day vulnerabilities and exploits has been around for more than a decade, until recently it was fairly small and lurked in the closed, underground world of
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skills and wares to the highest bidder instead of handing information about software holes over to vendors to be fixed. Before putting his Windows Excel zero day on the auction block, fearwall did disclose information about the vulnerability to Microsoft, as “responsible” researchers were expected to do, but the software giant
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The bidding reached only $60 before eBay yanked the listing. But the aborted sale was a foreshadowing of things to come. Today the markets for zero-day vulnerabilities and exploits are legion—from the white-market bug bounty programs offered by software makers and website owners themselves to the thriving underground black
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security holes in their software, and have made the companies more responsive about fixing them. Third-party security firms like HP TippingPoint also pay for zero days, which they use to test the security of customer networks and protect them against attacks. TippingPoint discloses the vulnerabilities privately to software vendors so they
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customers from attacks that they don’t know about yet. The thriving underground black market that caters to crooks and corporate spies sells not just zero-day vulnerabilities and exploits but also the payloads to weaponize the exploits—Trojan horses, spy kits, and other malicious tools designed to steal online banking
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and the Zlob Trojan before it, used. But the underground criminal sales—troubling as they are—are rapidly being eclipsed by the newest market for zero-day vulnerabilities and exploits, one that critics predict will soon have a more serious effect on security than the criminal market. This is the flourishing gray
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market of digital arms dealers—defense contractors and private marketeers—whose government customers have driven up the price of zero days and enticed sellers away from the vendor bounty programs where the holes will be fixed and into the arms of people who only want to
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misuse them to spy on political opponents and activists or pass them to another government that will. Even if a government agency is using a zero day for a legitimate national security purpose, vulnerabilities sold on the gray market are not disclosed to vendors for patching, which leaves anyone who doesn’
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Hacking Team in Italy and the Gamma Group in the UK both sell surveillance tools for law enforcement and intelligence agencies that use zero-day exploits to get installed. The zero-day work of Endgame Systems, a Georgia-based firm, was a badly kept secret in the security community for years but wasn’t
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packages Endgame offered, called Maui, Cayman, and Corsica. For $2.5 million a year, the Maui package provided buyers with a bundle of twenty-five zero-day exploits. The Cayman package, which cost $1.5 million, provided intelligence about millions of vulnerable machines worldwide already infected with botnet worms like Conficker and
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to this effect. While Endgame made a concerted effort to hide its exploit business, one company that’s positively garrulous about its role in the zero-day trade is VUPEN Security, based in Montpellier, France. VUPEN bills itself as a boutique security firm creating and selling exploits to intelligence agencies and
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law enforcement for offensive cyber security operations and lawful intercept missions. Originally launched in 2008 to protect government clients from zero-day attacks, the company began creating exploits for offensive operations two years later. In 2011, it earned $1.2 million in revenue, nearly 90 percent
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won’t say how many exploits they’ve sold since they began this part of their business, but says they discover hundreds of zero days a year. “We have zero days for everything,” he says. “We have almost everything for every operating system, for every browser, for every application if you want.” How
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also offers a Threat Protection Program that provides detailed research on exclusive vulnerabilities discovered by its researchers to allow customers “to reduce their exposure to zero-day attacks,” according to a company brochure that got leaked to WikiLeaks.9 Both of these programs are described as if they’re meant to
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help customers defensively protect themselves from zero-day attacks—zero-day exploits can be used to test a system for its vulnerability to an attack—but the information provided in them can also be used
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don’t want to have such things.” Subscribers to their exploit service have access to a portal, where they can shop a menu of existing zero days, or special-order exploits for a specific operating system or application. Exploits are priced at four levels, according to the brochure. Subscribers purchase a
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that make oppressive surveillance and cyberwarfare possible—putting everyone at risk in the process.11 He acknowledges that governments would make and use their own zero days whether or not companies like VUPEN sold them, but says the free-market sellers are a “ticking bomb” because there’s no control over
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enforcement agency’s network and steals one of these weaponized exploits?”12 In 2013, initial steps were taken to try to regulate the sale of zero days and other cyberweapons. The Wassenaar Arrangement—an arms-control organization composed of forty-one countries, including the United States, the UK, Russia, and Germany
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activities, financial means, diplomatic engagement, and such other means as the President considers appropriate.” But it’s unclear exactly how such controls would work, since zero days and other digital weapons are much more difficult to monitor than conventional weapons, and such controls requiring export licenses for the foreign sale of exploits
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May 6, 2007, available at weis2007.econinfosec.org/papers/29.pdf. 3 Author interview with Charlie Miller, September 2011. 4 Ibid. 5 Greenberg, “Shopping for Zero-Days: A Price List for Hackers’ Secret Software Exploits.” 6 Tonya Layman, “Rouland’s Tech Security Firm Growing Fast,” Atlanta Business Chronicle, June 11, 2011. 7
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He had no interest in general computer security and couldn’t care less about announcements warning of the latest viruses and worms infecting PCs. Even zero-day exploits held no allure for him. So when Stuxnet first made headlines in the technology press and became the subject of extensive chatter on security
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McGurk says, they had catalogued some 4,000 functions in the code—more than most commercial software packages contained—and had also uncovered the four zero-day exploits that Symantec and Kaspersky would later find. ICS-CERT released an advisory on July 20 announcing to control-system owners that malware targeting the
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of software vulnerabilities” from private vendors—that is, the boutique firms and large defense contractors who compose the new industrial war complex that feeds the zero-day gray market.35 This trend in government outsourcing of offensive cyber operations is visible in the job announcements that have sprung up from defense contractors
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public or privately to the vendor in question so that patches can be distributed to computer users. But when military and intelligence agencies need a zero-day vulnerability for offensive operations, the last thing they want to do is have it patched. Instead, they keep fingers crossed that no one else
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Iran, a hacker or nation-state cyberwarrior from another country was exploiting them too. “It’s pretty naïve to believe that with a newly discovered zero-day, you are the only one in the world that’s discovered it,” Howard Schmidt, former cybersecurity coordinator for the White House and former executive
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in US systems so that they can be exploited in foreign ones creates a schism in the government that pits agencies that hoard and exploit zero days against those, like the Department of Homeland Security, that are supposed to help secure and protect US critical infrastructure and government systems. In his
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discovered; they had put in extensive work to deconstruct the Windows portion of the attack and had been the first private researchers to discover additional zero days in Stuxnet and report them to Microsoft. But beyond its menagerie of exploits, they hadn’t considered Stuxnet a particularly interesting threat. The unfamiliar
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on USB flash drives to drop its malicious cargo. But the CrySyS Lab had found no dropper on machines at Bartos’s company and no zero-day exploits, either. After Symantec published its paper about Duqu, however, Chien asked Bencsáth to have the Hungarian victim search their systems again for anything
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gave the attackers escalated privileges on infected machines by exploiting a buffer-overflow vulnerability in the wallpaper feature of Windows. The vulnerability had been a zero day when the attackers created the exploit in February 2009, but by the time they released Stuxnet four months later that June, Microsoft had patched
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for launching their attack. The switch to the Duqu platform likely occurred because the missile portion of the variant Stuxnet 2010, with all of its zero-day exploits and additional spreading mechanisms, was much more complicated and required more code. And the Tilde-d platform was a much simpler and more
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were never found because this version was much more tightly controlled than later ones and only infected a limited number of machines. Instead of using zero-day exploits to spread, it spread in just one way—by infecting Siemens Step 7 project files. These were the files that programmers shared among
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the next wave of Stuxnet struck. The payload was identical to the one unleashed the previous June, but this version included the larger collection of zero-day exploits and other spreading mechanisms, including the .LNK exploit that ultimately led to its discovery. Despite all of these extra bells and whistles, however,
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wanted to take out. Six cascades of 164 centrifuges each added up to 984 centrifuges. The Israelis apparently added the final touches—the extra zero days and other spreading mechanisms—in order to supersize it. Sanger reports that sources told him that the worm was launched inside Natanz and escaped when
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than missiles, with the ability to arrive at their destination in seconds, and can be tweaked on the fly to combat counterdefenses. If a zero-day vulnerability gets patched, attackers can draw from a reserve of alternative exploits—as Stuxnet’s developers did—or change and recompile code to alter its
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to the pool of tools and techniques that criminal hackers and hacktivists would adopt. Nor did they ask about the ethics and consequences of stockpiling zero-day exploits and withholding information about security vulnerabilities from US system owners so the government can use them to attack the systems of adversaries. Michael Hayden
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specifically addressed this issue and recommended that the National Security Council establish a process for reviewing the government’s use of zero days. “US policy should generally move to ensure that Zero Days are quickly blocked, so that the underlying vulnerabilities are patched on US Government and other networks,” the review board wrote,
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noting that only “in rare instances, US policy may briefly authorize using a Zero Day for high priority intelligence collection, following senior, interagency review involving all appropriate departments.”39 In almost all instances, they wrote, it is “in the national
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government is to defend.”40 In a speech addressing the review board’s report, President Obama ignored both of the panel’s recommendations for handling zero days and for conducting oversight. But during a confirmation hearing for Vice Adm. Michael Rogers in March 2014 to replace the retiring General Alexander as
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Command and the NSA to provide examples of circumstances under which they would use cyberweapons, or explain the circumstances under which they hoard information about zero-day vulnerabilities versus when they might allow disclosure of information about a security hole to get it fixed. And it would be important to know,
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